Coronopapilla Kohlm. & Volkm.-Kohlm., Mycol. Res. 94: 686 (1990). Type species: Coronopapilla avellina Kohlm. & Volkm.-Kohlm., Mycol. Res. 94: 687 (1990). Coronopapilla is characterized by immersed ascomata with a conical papilla, thin peridium, 8-spored and thick-walled, cylindrical and fissitunicate asci.

Ascospores are ellipsoidal, 1-3-septate, brown and distoseptate. Coronopapilla avellina is an obligate marine species, and was originally assigned to Didymosphaeriaceae (Kohlmeyer and Volkmann-Kohlmeyer 1990). The marine habitat of Coronopapilla makes it readily distinguishable from Didymosphaeria Ulixertinib futilis (the generic type of Didymosphaeria). Thus, the familial placement of Coronopapilla is yet to be determined. Cucurbitaria Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. (London) 1: 508, 519 (1821). Type species: Cucurbitaria berberidis (Pers.) Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. (London) 1: 508, 519 (1821). ≡ Sphaeria berberidis Pers., Neues Mag. Bot. 1: 83 (1794). A narrow generic concept of Cucurbitaria was accepted by Welch (1926), who restricted Cucurbitaria to five closely related species, which have turbinate ascomata that develop cespitosely in a massive subiculum or over

compressed stromatic tissues and selleck chemical have a thick and obconoid base. A broader generic concept was accepted by Mirza (1968), who also included species with globose or ovoid to pyriform ascomata that are gregarious on the substrate with only sparse subiculum and lack an obconoid region in the base of the locule. Barr (1990b) accepted an intermediate concept, and described 11 related species from North selleck chemicals America. Currently,

450 species are accepted in Cucurbitaria (http://​www.​mycobank.​org/​mycotaxo.​aspx), and the genus was assigned to Cucurbitariaceae. In this study, an isolate of C. berberidis clustered with some species of Pyrenochaeta and Didymosphaeria futilis, and they get moderate bootstrap support (Plate 1). Cucurbitariaceae may be another family within Pleosporineae. Curreya Sacc., Syll. fung. (Abellini) 2: 651 (1883). Type species: Curreya conorum (Fuckel) Sacc., Syll. fung. (Abellini) 2: 651 (1883). Curreya is a contentious genus which had been assigned to Pleospora (Barr 1981). von Arx and van der Aa (1983), however, maintained it as distinct, because of its Coniothyrium anamorph, and considered Curreya should be closely related to Didymosphaeria, Melanomma, Paraphaeosphaeria or Massarina. Because of the small sclerotial cells of its peridium, the narrower, thinner-walled asci and its Coniothyrium-like anamorph, Barr (1990b) assigned it to the Leptosphaeriaceae. Previous phylogenetic studies indicated that a strain of Curreya pityophila (J.C. Schmidt & Kunze) Petr. nested within Massarineae (Kruys et al. 2006). Decorospora Inderb., Kohlm. & Volkm.-Kohlm., Mycologia 94: 657 (2002). Type species: Decorospora gaudefroyi (Pat.) Inderb., Kohlm. & Volkm.-Kohlm., Mycologia 94: 657 (2002). ≡ Pleospora gaudefroyi Pat., Tabl. analyt. Fung. France (Paris) 10: 40 (no. 602) (1886).

05) in gingival bleeding was seen with a therapeutic Selleckchem Talazoparib dose of 0.06 U krill enzymes compared with placebo chewing gum [41]. The gum containing proteolytic enzymes was found to be well tolerated as none of the subjects reported any adverse reactions or events during the entire trial

period. Viral Infections Acute nasopharyngitis, or the common cold, caused by any one of a large number of antigenically distinct viruses and as one of the most common infectious syndromes in humans, is associated with significant health burden, both in terms of financial and quality of life outcomes [42, 43]. Pathogens of the enterovirus family (human rhinoviruses and Coxsackie A virus serotypes) are the principal causative agent in viral infections Selleck Enzalutamide and can result in symptoms such as sore throat, sneezing and rhinorrhea, and secondary bacterial infections, as well as more severe symptoms by exacerbating asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and cystic fibrosis [42, 43]. Rhinovirus, the most common cause of colds and acute respiratory tract illness [34], gains entry into

host cells of the nose and throat by interacting with the human intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (or CD54) [15]. This suggests that proteases that target these molecules, such as those from cod MTMR9 trypsin [28], may have therapeutic potential in the management of viral infections. Indeed, in vitro studies have shown that

exposing viruses to trypsins results in a reduction in infectivity/activation [44, 45]. Furthermore, data from postmarket studies suggest that the use of ColdZyme® (Enzymatica AB, Lund, Sweden) mouth spray, an oral solution containing glycerol and a cold-adapted cod trypsin, can reduce the incidence of the common cold [46]. Marketed for use as a moisturizer and to improve oral hygiene, users of ColdZyme noted a reduced occurrence of cold symptoms. The ColdZyme mouth spray creates a thin film in the mouth and throat cavity that acts as an active surface barrier with proteolytic activity. Furthermore, the cold-adapted trypsin used in ColdZyme mouth spray has shown high efficiency in reducing the infectivity of human rhinovirus 16 [46] and herpes simplex virus 1 in vitro [47]. A summary of the proteases can be found in Table 1 [2, 3, 11–13, 38, 39, 41, 46, 47].

James Booth for assistance with statistical analyses. Electronic supplementary material Additional file 1: Table S1: Proteins found to be differentially produced between L. monocytogenes parent strain 10403S and ΔBCHL. (XLSX 18 KB) Additional file 2: Table S2: Strains used in this study. (XLSX 10 KB) References 1. Chaturongakul S, Raengpradub S, Wiedmann M, Boor KJ: Modulation of stress and virulence in Listeria monocytogenes . Trends Microbiol 2008,16(8):388–396.PubMedCrossRef 2. Gray MJ, Zadoks RN, Fortes ED, Dogan B, Cai S, Chen

Y, Scott VN, Gombas this website DE, Boor KJ, Wiedmann M: Listeria monocytogenes isolates from foods and humans form distinct but overlapping populations. Appl Environ Microbiol 2004,70(10):5833–5841.PubMedCrossRef JQ1 datasheet 3. Zhang C, Nietfeldt J, Zhang M, Benson AK: Functional consequences of genome evolution in Listeria monocytogenes : the lmo0423 and lmo0422 genes encode SigmaC and LstR, a lineage II-specific heat shock system. J Bacteriol 2005,187(21):7243–7253.PubMedCrossRef

4. Orsi RH, den Bakker HC, Wiedmann M: Listeria monocytogenes lineages: Genomics, evolution, ecology, and phenotypic characteristics. Int J Med Microbiol 2011,301(2):79–96.PubMedCrossRef 5. O’Byrne CP, Karatzas KA: The role of Sigma B (Sigma B) in the stress adaptations of Listeria monocytogenes : overlaps between stress adaptation and virulence. Adv Appl Microbiol 2008, 65:115–140.PubMedCrossRef 6. Oliver HF, Orsi RH, Wiedmann M, Boor KJ: Listeria monocytogenes SigmaB has a small core regulon and a conserved role in virulence but makes Methane monooxygenase differential contributions to stress tolerance across a diverse collection of strains. Appl Environ Microbiol 2010,76(13):4216–4232.PubMedCrossRef 7. Chaturongakul S, Raengpradub S, Palmer ME, Bergholz TM, Orsi RH, Hu Y, Ollinger J, Wiedmann M, Boor KJ: Transcriptomic and phenotypic analyses identify coregulated, overlapping regulons among PrfA, CtsR, HrcA, and the alternative sigma

factors SigmaB, SigmaC, SigmaH, and SigmaL in Listeria monocytogenes . Appl Environ Microbiol 2011,77(1):187–200.PubMedCrossRef 8. Chaturongakul S, Boor KJ: RsbT and RsbV contribute to SigmaB-dependent survival under environmental, energy, and intracellular stress conditions in Listeria monocytogenes . Appl Environ Microbiol 2004,70(9):5349–5356.PubMedCrossRef 9. Wemekamp-Kamphuis HH, Wouters JA, de Leeuw PP, Hain T, Chakraborty T, Abee T: Identification of sigma factor Sigma B-controlled genes and their impact on acid stress, high hydrostatic pressure, and freeze survival in Listeria monocytogenes EGD-e. Appl Environ Microbiol 2004,70(6):3457–3466.PubMedCrossRef 10. Fraser KR, Sue D, Wiedmann M, Boor K, O’Byrne CP: Role of SigmaB in regulating the compatible solute uptake systems of Listeria monocytogenes : osmotic induction of opuC is SigmaB dependent. Appl Environ Microbiol 2003,69(4):2015–2022.PubMedCrossRef 11.

More SEM images of the nanotubes grown on plasma-treated membranes can be found in Additional file 1: Figure S3. It should be noted that SEM and TEM examinations reveal the open-end carbon nanotubes grown inside the channels and on the membrane top (see Figures 1, 4 and 5 in Additional file 1: Figures S2 and S3). Examination of many SEM images made

at different tilt angles shows that most of the nanotubes LBH589 manufacturer have open ends. This important finding could be explained by the specific mechanism of the nanotube nucleation and growth on the nanoporous membranes. We believe that the surface features of the membrane surface play a major role in nanotube nucleation and sustaining the growth (a similar mechanism was described for the silicon surface with mechanically written features [32]). In this particular case, channel walls nucleate open selleck chemical nanotubes and sustain their growth with open ends. It should be also noted that the diameter of the channel-nucleated and grown nanotubes corresponds to the channel diameters (20 to 50 nm, Figure 5), whereas the diameters of the nanotubes nucleated on the membrane top can reach 70 to 80 nm (Figure 4).

The number of atomic carbon layers composing the nanotube walls is also larger for the case of nanotubes nucleated on the membrane top. Thus, the plasma posttreatment of the alumina membranes before the nanotube growth radically changes the outcomes. Indeed, nucleation of the nanotubes inside long channels becomes possible. Here, we should stress that we did not use any special catalyst applied into the channels (directly at the bottom), as it was demonstrated by other authors [33]. In contrast, we used a rather simple technique of depositing cheap and commonly used S1813 photoresist and a thin Fe layer onto the upper surface of the membrane. Most probably, the plasma posttreatment changes the

energy state of the alumina membrane and promotes deep penetration of the photoresist (which serves as a carbon precursor) into the channels. HAS1 As a result, nucleation and efficient growth of carbon nanotubes in the pores become possible. To decide if the ion flux extracted from the plasma can penetrate into the channels in the alumina membrane and affect the surface state of the material, one should compare the thickness of the sheath between the plasma and the surface with the diameter of a typical channel (i.e. of about 50 nm) and estimate the typical ion energy colliding with the surface. For a floating surface, the surface potential U S can be estimated [18, 34] (1) where T e is the electron temperature, k is the Boltzmann’s constant, e is the electron charge, m e is the electron mass and M i is the ion mass. For typical low-temperature plasma parameters (T e  ≈ 2 to 3 eV), the surface potential is U s  = (5 to 7) × T e = 10.20 eV.

The athletes recruited had not used creatine or creatine-based supplements within the preceding 3 months of this study. Rugby passing skill test The repeated rugby passing skill was performed indoors and consisted of: a 20 m sprint in which at the 10 m mark the player had to attempt to pass a rugby ball left or right (alternating) through a hanging hoop (diameter 1.5 m) 10 m away from

them. Players were also asked to identify their better passing side (dominant). All 10 players clearly believed they had a better passing side, and this was supported by alternate accuracy. The 20 m protocol had to be completed in less than 20 s (beep timed for the players) and they undertook 20 repeats (10 passes on each side) with a walk back recovery period. Execution success was simply defined as the number of successful attempts on the dominant BYL719 chemical structure and non-dominant side. The elite group of athletes were familiar with this common rugby skill and thus, a high level of reliability was expected.

To further ensure high test-retest reliability, three weeks of familiarization sessions were also performed before the main testing procedures. Saliva measures Saliva FDA-approved Drug Library screening was collected immediately before each trial as follows: players provided a passive drool of saliva into sterile containers (LabServe, NewZealand) approximately 2 ml over a timed collection period (2 min). The saliva samples were aliquoted into two separate sterile containers (LabServe, New Zealand) and stored at – 80°C until assay. Samples were analysed in duplicate using commercial kits (Salimetrics LLC, USA) and the manufacturers’ guidelines. The minimum detection limit for the testosterone mafosfamide assay was 2 pg/ml with intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variation (CV) of 1.2 -12.7%. The cortisol assay had a detection limit of 0.3 ng/ml with intra- and inter-assay CV of 2.6 – 9.8%. Statistical Analyses The accuracy of skill execution with sleep deprivation and treatments was examined using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)

with repeated measures on both the dominant and non-dominant passing sides. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA was also used to evaluate the effects of sleep state, treatments and any interactions for each hormonal variable. In addition, dominant versus non-dominant side skill performance during familiarisation trials and non-deprived performance versus familiarisation performance were examined similarly. The Tukey HSD test was used as the post hoc procedure where appropriate. Significance was set at an alpha level of p ≤ 0.05. Results Familiarisation training and dominant versus non-dominant passing side A significant main effect for skill performance was identified over time [F(5, 108) = 38.44, p < 0.001]. Skill execution on both sides improved significantly (p < 0.001) across the first 5 sessions (Table 1) and then was unchanged between session 5 and 12.

1 The three overlapping elements of climate vulnerability (source: Gabrielsson 2012) Clearly, these elements are highly inter-related and there are broad social, economic, political and ecological conditions that affect all three elements to varying degrees. Complexity is thus a key feature of vulnerability in this dynamic system of interlinked components in continuous flux. Uncertainty is also a critical factor affecting the system, since we are studying not only present vulnerabilities but also future potential impacts, where our knowledge is limited because data are based on anticipated

Y-27632 cost changes, rather than actual. This temporal dilemma can be tackled by using the actual context-specific and process-sensitive empirical

material already available to us and analyzing it through theoretically informed reasoning, i.e., what is known as ‘retroduction’ (Ragin 2011). There are (at least) two distinctive camps in vulnerability research. The first, referred to as outcome vulnerability (O‘Brien et al. 2007), has grown out of various risk-hazard and impact frameworks (see Füssel and Klein 2006). It focuses on the impacts of climate change in Selleck Raf inhibitor terms of measurable units on various sectors in society. The second, contextual vulnerability, proceeds from the constructivist literature on entitlements and livelihoods frameworks (see Dreze and Sen 1991; Sen 1999; Watts and Bohle 1993; Ribot et al. 1996; Adger 2006). It focuses on the variation and dynamics of vulnerability Acyl CoA dehydrogenase within and between social groups in society, thus emphasizing aspects of inequality and distribution. Our conceptualization of climate vulnerability draws upon both of these frameworks in an effort to relate exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity to each other in an integrated manner, as called for by Hinkel (2011). This is demonstrated in our interactive work on seasonal calendars

(see section below on Seasonal pattern of hardship and coping), which we see as a novelty and thus a contribution to the vulnerability debate in climate change research. Analytical framework and integration of field methods Drawing on Schröter et al. (2005) and adapted to our study context, five criteria guide our climate vulnerability analysis. First, we include a multitude of different types of data, thus necessitating and allowing for interdisciplinary research and the inclusion of non-scientists. Second, and following Cutter et al. (2003), we understand vulnerability as place-based and context-specific, hence the need to pay attention to the nesting of scales. Third, we recognize multiple socio-ecological stressors and feed-back mechanisms, which we attempt to capture in the seasonal calendars. Fourth, we allow for differential adaptive capacities and thus identify the barriers and constraints within the human-environment system that make it possible for some to adapt but others not.

Phys Rev B 2007, 76:0143051–0143059. 17. Yang Y, Yang B, Fu Z, Yan H, Zhen W, Dong W, Xia L, Liu W, Jian Z, Li F: Enhanced yellow-green photoluminescence from ZnO-SiO 2 composite opal. J Phys Condens Matter 2004, 16:7277–7286.CrossRef Competing selleck chemical interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ contributions KH and HC carried out the design and the experiment. CH set up the measurement system. MW conceived of the

study and facilitated its coordination. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Thin and ultrathin mica flakes have been recently proposed as a promising dielectric material for graphene- and carbon nanotube-based electronics [1–3]. Among the outstanding properties of thin mica sheets, one finds high dielectric constant, atomically flat surface, chemical and mechanical stability, the possibility to obtain single atomic sheets [2], and excellent adhesion see more to graphene with no ripples [4]. For some applications such as the use of mica sheets as gate dielectric, mica flakes are directly in contact with a metallic surface [3]. It is known that the properties of some ultrathin sheet materials like graphene can be greatly

affected by its contact with a metallic material, and therefore it is fundamental to understand whether this is also the case for ultrathin mica flakes. To develop such investigations, it would be advantageous to have a simple optical technique capable to localize mica flakes directly

on metallic surfaces and determine their thickness in situ similarly as it can be done on Si02/Si substrates [2, 3]. However, the possibility to optically detect mica flakes on metallic substrates has not been reported yet. In this paper, we second precisely address this issue and demonstrate that thin mica flakes can be visualized on semitransparent gold substrates, and their thickness can be estimated by optical microscopy. We show that the optical contrast is largely enhanced using semitransparent metallic substrates, instead of opaque metallic substrates, which enable accurate characterization of ultrathin mica flakes. Theoretical background We consider the mica-gold system schematically shown in the inset of Figure  1a. It consists of a thin mica flake on a metallic layer supported by a glass slab. According to the transfer matrix formalism [5], the reflectance for normal incidence of the mica and gold in the considered structure can be calculated as: Figure 1 Calculated reflectance spectra, optical contrasts, and color evolution of the mica flakes. (a) Calculated reflectance spectra of mica (colored lines) and gold (black lines) in the structure shown in the inset as a function of the wavelength of visible light. Mica thicknesses are 0 nm (black lines, bare gold), 10 nm (red lines), 30 nm (blue lines), and 50 nm (green lines). Gold layer thicknesses are 20 nm (continuous lines) and 300 nm (dashed lines). Inset: schematic representation of the layered structure analyzed.

Mycopathologia 2002,153(2):91–98.PubMedCrossRef 5. Desmond OJ, Manners JM, Stephens AE, MaClean DJ, Schenk PM, Gardiner DM, Munn AL, Kazan K: The Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol elicits hydrogen peroxide production, programmed cell death and defence

responses in wheat. Molecular Plant Pathology 2008,9(4):435–445.PubMedCrossRef 6. Mudge AM, Dill-Macky R, Dong YH, Gardiner DM, White RG, Manners JM: A role for the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol selleck products in stem colonisation during crown rot disease of wheat caused by Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium pseudograminearum . Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology 2006,69(1–3):73–85.CrossRef 7. Hestbjerg H, Felding G, Elmholt S: Fusarium culmorum infection of barley seedlings: Correlation between aggressiveness and deoxynivalenol content. Journal of Phytopathology-Phytopathologische Zeitschrift 2002,150(6):308–312.CrossRef 8. Goswami RS, Kistler HC: Pathogenicity and in planta mycotoxin accumulation among members of the Fusarium graminearum species complex on wheat and rice. Phytopathology 2005,95(12):1397–1404.PubMedCrossRef 9. Liu WZ, Langseth W, Skinnes H, Elen ON, Sundheim L: Comparison of visual head blight ratings,

seed infection levels, and deoxynivalenol production for assessment of resistance in cereals inoculated with Fusarium culmorum . European Journal of Plant Pathology 1997,103(7):589–595.CrossRef 10. Adams GC, Hart LP: The role of deoxynivalenol and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol in pathogenesis selleck inhibitor by Gibberella zeae as elucidated through protoplast fusions between toxigenic and non-toxigenic strains. Phytopathology 1989,79(4):404–408.CrossRef 11. Walker SL, Leath S, Hagler WM, Murphy JP: Variation

among SPTLC1 isolates of Fusarium graminearum associated with Fusarium head blight in North Carolina. Plant Disease 2001,85(4):404–410.CrossRef 12. Simpson DR, Thomsett MA, Nicholson P: Competitive interactions between Microdochium nivale var. majus, M-nivale var. nivale and Fusarium culmorum in planta and in vitro . Environmental Microbiology 2004,6(1):79–87.PubMedCrossRef 13. Schmidt-Heydt M, Magan N, Geisen R: Stress induction of mycotoxin biosynthesis genes by abiotic factors. Fems Microbiology Letters 2008,284(2):142–149.PubMedCrossRef 14. Gardiner DM, Kazan K, Manners JM: Nutrient profiling reveals potent inducers of trichothecene biosynthesis in Fusarium graminearum . Fungal Genetics and Biology 2009,46(8):604–613.PubMedCrossRef 15. Gardiner DM, Osborne S, Kazan K, Manners JM: Low pH regulates the production of deoxynivalenol by Fusarium graminearum . Microbiology-SGM 155(9):3149–3156. 16. Magan N, Hope R, Colleate A, Baxter ES: Relationship between growth and mycotoxin production by Fusarium species, biocides and environment. European Journal of Plant Pathology 108(7):685–690. 17.

Springer, New York Burnham KP, Anderson DJ (2001) Kullback-Leibler information as a basis for strong inference in ecological studies. Wildl Res 28:111–119CrossRef Butchart SHM, Walpole MJ, Collen B, van Strien A, Scharlemann JPW, Almond REA, Baillie JEM, Bomhard B, Brown CJ, Bruno J, Carpenter KE, Carr GM, Chanson J, Chenery AM, Csirke J, Davidson NC, Dentener find more F, Foster M, Galli A, Galloway JN, Genovesi P, Gregory RD, Hockings M, Kapos V, Lamarque J-F, Leverington F, Loh J, McGeoch MA, McRae L, Minasyan A, Hernandez Morcillo M, Oldfield TEE, Pauly D,

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The cultures were maintained in a humidified 5% CO2 environment at 37°C. The medium was changed twice a week and the cells were trypsinized and subcultivated once a week. Somatostatin and Octreotide (Sigma) were prepared as described previously [24]. The cells were treated with 1 nM somatostatin

and 1 nM Octreotide for different periods of time (0, 1 h, 12 h, 24 h, 72 h), as described by Brevini [25]. Controls were untreated cells. RNA extraction and RT-PCR XAF1 mRNA was detected using reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR). Total cellular RNA was extracted using Trizol reagent (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), according to the manufactures’ instruction. cDNA was synthesized using random primers (N6) and M-MLV reverse transcriptase. PCR was performed by using

XAF1 -specific primers as follows: forward: 5′-ATG GAA GGA GAC TTC TCG GT-3′; reverse: 5′-TTG CTG AGC Selleck MI-503 TGC ATG TCC AG-3′ and the conditions were: denaturation at 94°C for 5 min, followed by 34 cycles of 94°C 30 s, 60°C 30 s, 72°C 45 s, and then a final cycle of 10 min at 72°C. Amplification products (290 bps) were electrophoresed onto 1.5% agarose gels and visualized by 0.5% ethidium bromide staining. The results of electrophoresis were analyzed by the Gel Image System Fluor Chem TM 9900 (Alpha Innotech). Western blot analysis Cells were lysed in buffer containing 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 250 mM NaCl, 0.1% NP-40 and 5 mM EGTA, 50 mM sodium flu-oride, 60 mM β-glycerol-phosphate, 0.5 mM sodium-vanadate, 0.1 mM PMSF, 10 μg/ml PD184352 (CI-1040) aprotinin and 10 μg/ml leupeptin. Protein concentration was determined using the BCA protein assay kit (Pierce Bio-technology, Inc., USA). Protein ACP-196 samples (40 μg) were subjected to a 10% SDS-PAGE and electrophoretically transferred to PVDF membranes (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA). The membranes were first incubated with 5% nonfat milk in Tris-buffered saline (TBS). After washing three times in 0.1% Tween 20-TBS (TBST), the membranes were incubated with primary antibody (goat anti-human XAF1, 1:600;

Santa Cruz Biotecnology) and β-actin (rabbit anti-actin antibody R-22, 1:1000; Santa Cruz Biotecnology) separately at 4°C overnight, followed with the corresponding secondary antibodies separately (1:2500) for 1.5 h at room temperature and the antibody-bound proteins were detected by the ECL system (Amersham Biosciences, Little Chalfont Buckinghamshire, UK). Results Expression of XAF1 mRNA and protein in prostate cell lines The expression of XAF1 was detected at mRNA and protein levels with RT-PCR and Western blot. As shown in Figure 1, RT-PCR using cDNA primers specific for a segment of the human XAF1 mRNA provided a product of the expected size in four prostate cell lines. It showed lower expression of XAF1 mRNA in prostate cancer cells LNCaP, DU145 and PC3 compared with that in RWPE-1 cells which displayed the strongest expression of XAF1 mRNA among all four cell lines.