1Isolate related by RFLP (Figure 1) 2nsGPL genes: gtfA, rtfA and mtfC 3 ser2 genes: mdhtA, merA and mtfF 41591 and 1655 had a weak PCR product for mtfC. Sequencing showed a product with few bases different from AF125999 TMC724/ATCC 25291). The PCR product of #1591 was identical to the sequence of the mtfC gene of M. avium 104 Biofilm forming isolates are marked in bold typing. Discussion In this study, a method suitable for screening a large number of M. avium isolates for biofilm formation was established. Ninety-seven Navitoclax isolates of M. avium subsp. avium and

M. avium subsp. hominissuis originating from birds, swine and humans were examined for their biofilm forming abilities. To our knowledge, this is the first time a large number of such isolates from different hosts have been tested for biofilm formation. Nine isolates from swine formed biofilm, none of the isolates from humans or birds did. The optimised method was easy to perform, can be adapted to other test-conditions Ruxolitinib and gave clear and consistent results. A high and consistent biofilm-production was seen only when using Middlebrook 7H9, while no biofilm was detected in water. Biofilm forming abilities

did not correlate with RFLP-profile, hsp65 sequevar, colony morphology or with the presence of the tested GPL biosynthesis genes. Water has been described as the best medium for evaluation of biofilm formation [30, 42]. Williams et al used autoclaved potable water for biofilm quantification by CFU count and imaging [42], while Geier et al. used MQ water [43]. However, our isolates did not make biofilm in water, even though different types of water and water from different sources like distilled, potable and lake water was included. This discrepancy between earlier studies and the present study can be due to different isolates tested

or to other conditions in the experimental set-up. Water is not a standardised medium, and the content of ions, organic matter and the pH will vary depending on local factors. Coproporphyrinogen III oxidase Carter et al. demonstrated the effect of different ions and carbon sources on biofilm formation [30]. To test a medium containing different salts and glucose, we tested our panel of isolates in Hanks’s balanced salt solution, which has been described as potential biofilm media for M. avium [33, 42]. However in our hands, none of the isolates formed biofilm in Hanks’. In the present study, few isolates formed biofilm. The testing is performed under laboratory conditions, and cannot be directly transferred to bacterial behaviour in the environment.

PubMedCrossRef 17. Mollevi DG, Serrano T, Ginesta MM, Valls J, Torras J, Navarro M, Ramos E, Germa JR, Jaurrieta E, Moreno V, et al.: Mutations in TP53 are a prognostic factor in colorectal hepatic metastases undergoing surgical resection. Carcinogenesis 2007,28(6):1241–1246.PubMedCrossRef 18. Nash GM, Gimbel M, Shia J, Nathanson DR, Ndubuisi MI, Zeng ZS, Kemeny Selleckchem AG 14699 N, Paty PB: KRAS mutation correlates with accelerated metastatic progression in patients with colorectal liver metastases. Ann Surg Oncol 2010,17(2):572–578.PubMedCrossRef 19. Sobrero A: Molecular

markers of chemotherapy in advanced colorectal cancer: back to square one. Eur J Cancer 2009,45(11):1902–1903.PubMedCrossRef 20. Koopman M, Venderbosch S, Nagtegaal ID, Van Krieken JH, Punt CJ: A review on the use of molecular markers of cytotoxic therapy for colorectal cancer, what have we learned? Eur J Cancer 2009,45(11):1935–1949.PubMedCrossRef 21. Bertolini F, Bengala C, Losi L, Pagano M, Iachetta F, Dealis C, Jovic G, Depenni R, Zironi S, Falchi AM, et al.: Prognostic and predictive value of baseline and posttreatment molecular marker expression in locally advanced rectal cancer treated with neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2007,68(5):1455–1461.PubMedCrossRef 22. Terzi C, Canda AE, Sagol O, Atila K, Sonmez D, Fuzun M, Gorken IB, Oztop

I, Obuz F: Survivin, p53, and Ki-67 as predictors PF-2341066 of histopathologic response in locally advanced rectal cancer treated with preoperative chemoradiotherapy. Int J Colorectal Dis 2008,23(1):37–45.PubMedCrossRef 23. Zlobec I, Vuong T, Compton CC, Lugli A, Michel RP, Hayashi S, Jass JR: Combined analysis of VEGF and EGFR predicts complete tumour response in rectal cancer treated with preoperative radiotherapy. Br J Cancer 2008,98(2):450–456.PubMedCrossRef 24. Albanese I, Scibetta AG, Migliavacca M, Russo A, Bazan V, Tomasino RM, Colomba P, Tagliavia M, La Farina M: Heterogeneity

Isoconazole within and between primary colorectal carcinomas and matched metastases as revealed by analysis of Ki-ras and p53 mutations. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004,325(3):784–791.PubMedCrossRef 25. Di Nicolantonio F, Mercer SJ, Knight LA, Gabriel FG, Whitehouse PA, Sharma S, Fernando A, Glaysher S, Di Palma S, Johnson P, et al.: Cancer cell adaptation to chemotherapy. BMC Cancer 2005, 5:78.PubMedCrossRef 26. Tominaga T, Iwahashi M, Takifuji K, Hotta T, Yokoyama S, Matsuda K, Higashiguchi T, Oku Y, Nasu T, Yamaue H: Combination of p53 codon 72 polymorphism and inactive p53 mutation predicts chemosensitivity to 5-fluorouracil in colorectal cancer. Int J Cancer 2010,126(7):1691–1701.PubMed 27. Zorzi D, Laurent A, Pawlik TM, Lauwers GY, Vauthey JN, Abdalla EK: Chemotherapy-associated hepatotoxicity and surgery for colorectal liver metastases. Br J Surg 2007,94(3):274–286.PubMedCrossRef 28. Panasiuk A, Dzieciol J, Panasiuk B, Prokopowicz D: Expression of p53, Bax and Bcl-2 proteins in hepatocytes in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Simultaneously, the exciton transfer from low energy states to high energy states is damped since excitons do not have sufficient thermal energy for such

a transfer. Due to this asymmetry of exciton Acalabrutinib nmr hopping rate between low and high energy localizing states, the τ PL at the low-energy side is elongated due to refilling of states by relaxing excitons. The theoretical simulation of PL spectra presented in the literature indicates that the density of states is proportional to exp(-E/E 0) in dilute nitride structures [35–38]. In such case, the energy dependence of the PL decay time can be described by the following formula [34]: (1) where E 0 is an average energy for the density of states, τ rad is the maximum see more radiative lifetime, and E m is defined as the energy where the recombination rate equals the transfer rate [26, 34, 39]. The obtained energy dependence of the PL decay time can by very well fitted by Equation 1 as shown in Figure  4b. Using this approach to analyze TRPL data, we are able to extract the E 0 parameter which describes the distribution of localized states. The fits of experimental data to Equation 1 are shown in Figure  5. It is observed that the value of the E 0 parameter is clearly higher for the as-grown QW

than for the annealed QWs. Increasing the annealing temperature up to 700°C reduces the average energy of localized states E 0 up to 6 meV. As the annealing temperature is further increased, E 0 starts to increase due to degradation of the optical quality of the QW. This means that annealing not only reduces the density of localized states but also changes the average energy distribution of these states. Despite the large uncertainty in the values of the E 0 parameter, its dependence on annealing temperature Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase correlates well with the dependence on annealing temperature of the PL decay time at the peak PL energy (see Figure  1). The smallest value of the average localization energy E 0 is observed for the sample annealed at 700°C which is characterized by the longest decay time. This means that annealing reduces both

the number of nonradiative recombination centers and the deepness of localizing states. Figure 2 Dependence of PL peak maximum vs. temperature for as-grown (square) and annealed (720°C) (diamond) GaInNAsSb QW samples. Figure 3 Temporal evolution of PL spectrum (i.e., streak image) for (a) as-grown and (b) annealed (720°C) GaInNAsSb QW samples. Figure 4 Temporal evolution of PL intensity and dependence of decay time constant. (a) Temporal evolution of PL intensity at different energies of detection. (b) Dependence of decay time constant versus energy together with time-integrated TRPL spectra. Figure 5 Average energy of localized states E 0 as a function of annealing temperature. The values of E 0 for the annealed 1.

The results of FP assay show that 10 of 11 synthetic peptides (except no. 6 peptide) have antigenicity. When these 10 peptides reacted with standard antibody-positive serum, we measured >200-mP FP values, which were far higher than the FP values of those peptides that reacted with standard antibody-negative serum (Figure 5). Figure 5 Identification of the antigenicity of synthetic peptides by FP assay ( p < 0.05). Immunodominant Selleckchem R788 peptides of HBV surface antigen The dominant epitopes of HBV surface antigen were screened by analyzing the antibody levels against 10 antigenic peptides in 159 anti-HBV surface antigen-positive antiserum by FP assay. The results show that

nos. 1, 10, and 11 antigenic peptides were immunodominant among 159 samples, for the antibody levels against these peptides were higher than those against other peptides or the check details antibodies against these peptides widely existed among 159 samples (Table 2).

Table 2 The results of FP assay detecting antibodies against 10 antigenic peptides in 159 serum samples No. of peptides Numbers of samples (n = 159) Average ΔmP   ΔmP ≤ 25 25 < ΔmP ≤ 50 50 < ΔmP ≤ 100 ΔmP > 100   1 5 11 90 53 129 2 29 42 79 9 67 3 19 36 88 16 73 4 13 21 83 42 111 5 17 16 90 36 89 7 10 21 87 41 107 8 13 26 77 34 92 9 25 29 83 22 86 10 3 12 114 30 93 11 9 13 89 48 121 Detection of HBV infection using immunodominant peptides based on FP assay The resulting three dominant antigenic peptides were used to develop a FP-based method for detecting anti-HBV surface antigen. After FP analysis, the FP values represent the antibody levels against HBV surface antigen. The frequency distributions of the FP assay results obtained from the 293 serum samples are shown in Figure 6.

Adenylyl cyclase The histograms show that the majority of the HBV-negative sera had mP values of <80 and the majority of the sera from infected people had mP values of ≥80. In order to distinguish positive and negative results of HBV infection by FP values, all samples were detected for HBV infection by ELISA method. The results of ELISA were used as criterion for HBV infection for each sample, and an optimal cutoff point of 77 mP for FP assay was recommended by ROC curve analysis (Figure 7). Using the FP assay method to detect HBV infection, the results indicated that the antibody-positive ratio was 51.9%, analyzed using the three antigenic peptides; the sensitivity and specificity estimates at this cutoff point were 85.4% and 98.6%, respectively. The area under the ROC curve was 0.959 (95% confidence interval = 0.908 to 0.986), which indicated a high level of accuracy for this assay. Figure 6 Frequency distribution of the FP assay results that were obtained from 293 serum samples. The x-axis shows the mP values, and the y-axis shows the number of serum. Figure 7 ROC curve obtained from the analysis of the FP assay results of 293 serum samples.

0825-7.703. Meanwhile, the theoretical production of sugarcane was calculated according to the following equations [58]: (1)

Single stalk weight (kg) = [stalk diameter (cm)]2×[stalk height (cm)-30]×1 (g/cm3)×0.7854/1000; (2) Theoretical production (kg/hm2) = single stalk weight (kg)×productive stem numbers (hm-2). Soil enzyme assays The activities of five soil enzymes involved in the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus and stress responses, i.e., invertase (E.C. 3.2.1.26), urease (E.C. 3.5.1.5), acid phosphomonoesterase (E.C. 3.1.3.2), polyphenol oxidase (E.C. 1.10.3.1) selleck chemical and peroxidase (E.C. 1.11.1.7) were determined immediately from freshly sampled soil. Invertase and urease activities were measured following the method of Wang et al. [59] with 8% sucrose and 10% urea (w/v) as substrates, respectively. Acid phosphomonoesterase was assayed with 50 mM p-nitrophenyl phosphate (PNP) as substrate according to the method of Carine et al. [60]. Polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase activities were determined as described by Yu et al. [61] using 1% pyrogallic acid as substrate. Three replicates for each soil sample were taken to perform enzyme assays. BIOLOG analysis

Community level physiological profiles (CLPP) were assessed by the BIOLOG Eco MicroPlate™ system Navitoclax (Biolog Inc., CA, USA) according to the method of Lin et al. [62]. Three technical replicates were performed for each treatment. The plates were incubated at 25°C for 168 h, and the color development in each well was recorded as optical density (OD) at 590 nm with a plate reader (Thermo Scientific Alectinib Multiskan MK3, Shanghai, China) at regular 24 h-intervals. Microbial activity in each microplate, expressed as average well-color development (AWCD) was determined as follows: AWCD = ∑(C-R)/31, where C is the optical density within each well, R is the absorbance value of the plate control well. The 31 carbon substrates in ECO microplates were subdivided into six categories (polymers, carbohydrates, carboxylic acids, amino acids, amines and phenolic compounds)

following Choi et al.’s method [63]. The optical density at 96 h incubation time was used to calculate diversity and evenness indices as well as principal component analysis [62], since it was the shortest incubation time that provided the best resolution for all treatments [20]. Protein extraction and purification The soil proteins from cultivated samples were extracted and purified by the following protocol developed in our lab [17]. Briefly, 1 g of dry cultivated soil powder were extracted using 5 mL of 0.05 M citrate buffer (pH 8.0) and 5 mL of 1.25% SDS buffer (1.25% w/v SDS, 0.1 M Tris-HCl, pH 6.8, 20 mM DTT), respectively. Citrate extract and SDS extract were shaken for 30 min with 2 mL of buffered phenol (pH 8.0).

A: 800 ng PT (strain Bp-WWC). B: Control, no PT added. C: 2.6 pg wt PT (strain Tohama) corresponding to the limit of detection. D. 43 pg wt PT (strain

Tohama) Discussion Unmarked gene insertion and replacement were successful, using pSS4245 as vector in B. pertussis. After a second homologous recombination to excise the plasmid, no antibiotic gene marker nor any scars were left in the chromosome when compared with the cre-lox system [29] or earlier allelic-exchange procedures used in Bordetella [22]. Overproduction of genetically-deactivated PT toxin was reported in 1992 [20] by using tandem repeats of ptx genes or another copy inserted into the fha gene. The resulting recombinant B. pertussis strain overproduced PT up to 80

mg/L. Tandemly-repeated LEE011 ic50 genes are a known potential cause of genetic instability. For this reason, the genome sequence of B. pertussis was scanned to look for suitable integration sites. The DNA position between two terminators of pseudo-genes (putative ammonium transporter and putative auto-transporter genes) was selected as integration sites for the ptx cluster. The copy number for the PT structural cluster was limited to two, as overproduction of these virulence factors places a burden on cell metabolism, resulting in slower growth and potentially genetic instability, as shown by preliminary results. Over-expression of prn gene by the fha promoter to drive DNA Damage inhibitor higher expression was apparently toxic to growth of B. pertussis, possibly in resulting from higher PT expression. Our results showed that replacement of the prn promoter with a stronger

one did not provide increased prn expression [21]. Therefore, increasing the gene copy number under the control of the native prn promoter was the approach selected. The fha promoter of the second gene copy was replaced by the native prn promoter to generate a strain with a second copy of the prn gene and its native promoter inserted into another triclocarban location on the chromosome. The toxicity of PRN to the host cell was also reported in E. coli [30]. The fha promoter was then replaced by the native prn promoter, then the resulting strain exhibited normal growth in shake flasks and expressed twice the amount of PRN. The distribution of PRN between culture supernatant and cell extract was modified – a larger fraction of total PRN was found in the supernatant although in shake flasks, the quantities of PRN spontaneously released into the supernatant were minimal. The presence of either two copies of mutated PT gene alone or together with two copies of prn in WWC, WWD or WWE did not show any genetic instability as evidenced by serial-subculture experiment. All recombinant strains showed the presence of two copies of corresponding genes and corresponding amount of PT and PRN. Hence, homologous recombination among the homologous copies was not so far found in these strains.

J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2008, 5:5.PubMedCrossRef 14. Schaffer SW, Jong CJ, Ramila KC, Azuma J: Physiological roles of taurine in heart and muscle. J Biomed Sci 2010,17(Suppl https://www.selleckchem.com/products/FK-506-(Tacrolimus).html 1):S2.PubMedCrossRef 15. Dawson R Jr, Biasetti M, Messina S, Dominy J: The cytoprotective role of taurine in exercise-induced muscle injury. Amino Acids 2002, 22:309–324.PubMedCrossRef 16. Silva LA, Silveira PC, Ronsani MM, Souza PS, Scheffer D, Vieira LC, Benetti M, De Souza CT, Pinho RA: Taurine supplementation decreases oxidative stress in skeletal muscle after eccentric exercise. Cell Biochem Funct 2011, 29:43–49.PubMedCrossRef 17. Miyazaki T, Karube M, Matsuzaki Y, Ikegami T, Doy M, Tanaka N, Bouscarel

B: Taurine inhibits oxidative damage and prevents fibrosis in carbon tetrachloride-induced

hepatic fibrosis. J Hepatol 2005, 43:117–125.PubMedCrossRef 18. Miyazaki T, Matsuzaki Y, Ikegami T, Miyakawa S, Doy M, Tanaka N, Bouscarel B: Optimal and effective oral dose of taurine to prolong exercise performance in rat. Amino Acids 2004, 27:291–298.PubMedCrossRef 19. Dunn-Lewis C, Kraemer WJ, Kupchak BR, Kelly NA, Creighton BA, Luk HY, Ballard KD, Comstock BA, Szivak TK, Hooper DR, Denegar CR, Volek JS: A multi-nutrient supplement reduced markers of inflammation and BYL719 improved physical performance in active individuals of middle to older age: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Nutr J 2011, 10:90.PubMedCrossRef Inositol oxygenase 20. Yatabe Y, Miyakawa S, Miyazaki T, Matsuzaki Y, Ochiai N: Effects of taurine administration in rat skeletal muscles on exercise. J Orthop Sci 2003, 8:415–419.PubMedCrossRef 21. Galloway SD, Talanian JL, Shoveller AK, Heigenhauser GJ, Spriet LL: Seven days of oral taurine supplementation does not increase muscle taurine content or alter substrate metabolism during prolonged exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol 2008, 105:643–651.PubMedCrossRef 22. Bassit RA, Sawada LA, Bacurau RF, Navarro F, Martins E Jr, Santos RV, Caperuto EC,

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However, so far, no large-area (>1 × 1 μm2), well-regular parallel CeSi MLN0128 concentration x NW arrays with uniform distribution and identical dimension can be formed on flat and vicinal Si(100) surfaces. Recently, we have demonstrated that RE metals (e.g., Gd, Ce, and Er) can be self-organized to form a mesoscopically ordered parallel RES NW array on single-domain Si(110)-16 × 2 surfaces [23–25]. These parallel-aligned and unidirectional RES NWs exhibit identical sizes, periodic positions, large aspect ratios (length >1 μm, width ≤5 nm) exceeding 300, and ultra-high integration density up to 104 NWs/μm2.

Such large-area self-ordered growths of massively parallel RES NW arrays on Si(110) surfaces can open the possibility for wafer-scale integration into nanoelectronic devices combining the well-established Si(110)-based integrated-circuit technology [26–28] with the exotic 1D physical properties of RES NWs. To date, there is little knowledge of this template-directed 1D self-organization process that leads to the formation of well-ordered parallel DAPT RES NW arrays on single-domain Si(110)-16 × 2 surfaces. In this article, we have investigated the growth evolutions of CeSi x NWs on Si(110) surfaces over a wide range (1 to 9 monolayers (ML)) of Ce coverage by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM).

Our comprehensive study provides a detailed understanding of the 1D self-organization mechanism of perfectly ordered parallel arrays consisting of periodic and atomically identical CeSi x NWs on single-domain Si(110)-16 × 2 surfaces. Methods Our experiments were performed in an ultra-high vacuum, variable-temperature STM system (Omicron Nanotechnology GmbH, Taunusstein, Germany) with a base pressure of less than 3.0 × 10-11 mbar. An n-type P-doped Si(110) surface with a resistivity of about 10 Ω cm was cleaned by well-established annealing procedures [25, 29, 30]. An atomically

Lepirudin clean single-domain Si(110)-16 × 2 surface was confirmed by STM observation (Figure 1). Different parallel CeSi x NW arrays were produced by depositing high-purity (99.95%) Ce metals with coverages ranging from 1 to 9 ML (1 ML = 9.59 × 1014 atoms/cm2) onto a single-domain Si(110)-16 × 2 surface at 675 K with a deposition rate of 0.15 ML/min and subsequently annealed at 875 K for 20 min. The growth temperature cannot be higher than 675 K; otherwise, a large amount of Ce clusters will be formed [20, 21]. Ce metals were evaporated from an electron-beam evaporator with an internal flux meter; their deposition coverage was determined in situ by a quartz crystal thickness monitor with an accuracy of 20%. The sample temperature was measured using an infrared pyrometer with an uncertainty of ± 30 K. The chamber pressure remained below 1.0 × 10-9 mbar during evaporation. The STM measurements were acquired at 300 K using electrochemically etched nickel tips. Figure 1 STM images and topography profile of the atomically clean Si(110)-16 × 2 surface.

As shown in Figure 3A, 4D10 specifically reacted with the synthetic peptide PL10, whereas control antibody 4G2 (anti-flavivirus E mAb) did not reacted with PL10. For the sensitivity binding assay, the synthetic peptide PL10 bound the antibody in a concentration-dependent manner. Two control peptides PH10 (3LTTRGGEPHM12) and PM10 (SQNPPHRHQS) were not reactive

(Figure 3B). Figure 3 Properties analysis of synthetic peptide PL10. (A) Specific reactivity of PL10 with antibody 4D10 (anti-DENV1-4 prM mAb). The synthetic peptide PL10 could react with mAb 4D10 but control antibody 4G2 (anti-flavivirus E mAb) could not. (B) The sensitivity binding assay of synthetic peptides PL10 and two control peptides (PH10 and PM10) with mAb 4D10. The synthetic peptide PL10 bound the antibody in a concentration-dependent manner, but two control peptides had no reactivity with 4D10. (C) ELISA reactivities of synthetic peptide PL10 with immunized mice sera. Synthetic Selleck ABT-263 peptide PL10 was recognized by anti-DENV1-4 mice sera, whereas it was not recognized by anti-JEV mice sera and normal mice sera (NMS). (D) Competitive inhibition of phage clone binding to mAb 4D10 by synthetic peptide PL10. Competitive ELISA was performed using PL10 as competitor of its corresponding phage clones.

The percentage of inhibition is also shown. (E and F) ELISA reactivities KU-60019 of synthetic peptide PL10 with serum samples from 20 Cell Penetrating Peptide DENV2-infected patients (E) and 20 healthy adults (F). PH10 and PM10 were used as control. Data are expressed as means of at least three independent experiments. The error bars represent standard deviations (SD).

If there is no error bar, it is not that no variations among three independent experiments but that the variations are too small to show in the figure. * P < 0.05 vs PL10 at 0.1 μg. We next evaluated whether the synthetic peptide PL10 could be react with anti-DENV1-4 mice sera. Synthetic peptide PL10 was recognized by anti-DENV1-4 mice sera, whereas it was not recognized by anti-JEV mice sera and normal mice sera (NMS) (Figure 3C). We concluded that synthetic peptide PL10 is a DENV serocomplex cross-reactive epitope-based peptide. To confirm further the phage-displayed peptide was the epitope of antibody 4D10, a peptide competitive-inhibition assay was performed to determine whether the PL10 peptide competed with corresponding phage clones for reactivity with 4D10. The reaction activity of antibody 4D10 with the corresponding phage clones was inhibited markedly by PL10 at 0.1 μg per well with the inhibition percentage from 34% to 69% (Figure 3D). The results showed that the synthetic peptide and corresponding phage clones competed for the same antibody-binding site. Together, these findings suggest that 4D10 recognizes a new epitope on the N-terminal segment of DENV1-4 prM protein. Then, we evaluated the reactivity of synthetic peptide PL10 with DENV2 patient serum samples.

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“Introduction

Unlike globally rare taxa, which are rare with respect to our entire planet, locally rare taxa are those that are rare or uncommon within a local geographical boundary while more common outside of that boundary. Locally rare taxa are frequently composed of peripheral populations located at the edge of the taxon’s overall range. anti-PD-1 antibody These populations commonly have significant ecological value (Safriel et al. 1994; Lesica and Allendorf 1995; Leppig and White 2006; Thuiller et al. 2008). They often harbor unique genetic and morphological lineages that provide the opportunity for divergence along novel evolutionary paths through the processes of natural selection (Safriel et al. 1994; Lesica and Allendorf 1995; Gaston 2003). Maintenance of genetic variation by locally rare plants increases the probability of overall species survival (Lesica and Allendorf 1992; Lesica and Allendorf 1995) and locales with peripheral populations often act as refugia during catastrophic range contractions (Safriel et al. 1994; Channell and Lomolino 2000). Peripheral plant populations also provide the flexibility required for responding to stochastic environmental events such as global climate change (Safriel et al. 1994; Smith et al. 2001; Leppig and White 2006; Thuiller et al. 2008).