Because the genetic material of closely related pathogens are important pools from which novel genetic traits can be acquired, in this study, we investigated the occurrences of M protein (emm), superantigen genes, and streptolysin S structural gene (sagA), none of which had been demonstrated to exist in piscine isolates of GCSD. We also

analyzed the prevalence of the streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin G gene (spegg) in piscine GCSD. Table 1 lists the 44 strains used in this study. The fish isolates of GCSD (n=30) investigated SAR245409 molecular weight in this study were obtained from clinical specimens of infected fish in Japan (yellowtail, amberjack and kingfish), Taiwan (mullet), and Malaysia (pompano and white spotted snapper), from the summer of 2002 find more to the end of 2007. Mammalian isolates of both the α-hemolytic GCSD (n=9) and the β-hemolytic Lancefield group C S. dysgalactiae ssp. equisimilis GCSE (n=5) collected from pigs with endocarditis were kindly provided by the Kumamoto Prefecture Meat Inspection Office in Japan. These isolates were also used for comparison. Stock cultures of GCSD and GCSE isolates were maintained in Todd–Hewitt broth (Difco, Sparks, MD) at −80 °C. All isolates

were routinely aerobically grown on Todd–Hewitt agar (THA; Difco) or blood agar (Columbia agar base; Becton Dickinson, Cockeysville, MD) containing 5% sheep blood (Nippon Bio-Test Laboratories, Japan), and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. Lancefield serotyping C (Lancefield, 1933) was confirmed for GCSD and GCSE using Pastorex Strep (Bio-Rad, Marnes-la-Coquette, France). Genomic DNA was Interleukin-2 receptor extracted from bacterial colonies using DNAzol® reagent (Invitrogen, Carlsbad) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. To discriminate

fish isolates of GCSD from mammalian isolates of GCSD and GCSE, the specific PCR detection of fish isolates of GCSD using fish sodA gene primers has been performed according to the previously described method (Nomoto et al., 2008). Genomic DNA of GCSD fish isolates was screened by PCR for the presence of emm genes (Zhao et al., 2007), streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin genes including speA, speB, speC (Hashikawa et al., 2004), speM, smeZ, ssa (Igwe et al., 2003), spegg, and sagA (Ikebe et al., 2004). This PCR assay was performed as described in the references. The primers used by Ikebe et al. (2004) for the amplification of spegg and sagA were designed to yield bands of 205 and 113 bp, respectively. Therefore, the sagA and spegg primers are redesigned for amplifying larger-size bands to examine these gene sequences. The primer pairs of sagaF (5′-TACTTCAAATATTTTAGCTACT-3′) and sagaR (5′-GATGATACCCCGATAAGGATAA-3′) for amplifying a 487-bp segment of sagA were designed based on the streptolysin S genes of S. dysgalactiae ssp. equisimilis (AY033399).

, 2010). In

this study, the biofilm bacterins containing extracellular polysaccharide matrix conferred higher immunoprotection than the free cell bacterins after a challenge infection with the highly virulent SS strain. A major constituent of the biofilm homopolymer matrix has been named polysaccharide intercellular adhesin in S. epidermidis (Mack et al., 1996) and poly-N-acetyl b-1,6 glucosamine in S. aureus (Maira-Litran et al., 2002). Biofilms take advantage of the nutrient concentrating effect and can gain protection against predators and toxic agents Doramapimod (Beveridge et al., 1997). This protective nature of bacterial biofilms was exploited for the development of an effective vaccine that can facilitate improved antigen delivery. This may explain why the encapsulated glycocalyx biofilm possibly protects antigens and thus provides a large pool of antigens to lymphoid organs compared with free cells, which can facilitate longer retention of antigens in the lymphoid tissue and might CHIR-99021 clinical trial result in an early and heightened primary antibody response. Biofilms and biofilm matrices used as vaccine components have been studied extensively. Some vaccines have been evaluated for efficacy against bacterial pathogens

by involving surface polysaccharides or encompassing inactivated bacteria and toxoids (Opdebeeck & Norcross, 1984). In addition, bacteria surrounded by a mucous substance (likely a biofilm matrix) termed as pseudocapsule (Watson & Davies, 1993) or slime (Ekstedt & Bernhard, 1973), capsular polysaccharides (Lee et al., 2005), and a mixture of slime in liposomes, toxoids, and different inactivated bacteria (Amorena et al., 1994) have been studied, which have been revealed to confer a significant degree of protection. Azad and colleagues have developed and evaluated an Aeromonas hydrophila biofilm for oral vaccination of carp that induced significantly higher antibody titers and protection compared with a free cell vaccine (Azad et al., 1999; Asha et al., 2004; Nayak et al., 2004). Therefore, we can presume that an SS biofilm vaccine could be a potentially

effective vaccine to control this pathogen. This work was supported by the National Natural ADP ribosylation factor Science Foundation of China (U0931002), Youth Foundation of National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 30800815), Cloning and Identification of the resistance genes of swine against major pathogenic microorganism (2009ZX08009-1546), Special Fund for Public Welfare Industry of Chinese Ministry of Agriculture (200803016). “
“The biofilm phenotype is an increasingly important concept in mycological research. Recently, there has been a developing interest in whether Aspergillus species are truly able to form biofilms or not. Industrial mycologists have long been aware of biofilms and their benefit in fermentation processes, whereas clinically their role is uncertain.

The statistical difference in bacterial length between the two groups was analyzed Cobimetinib price by t-test. Transposon insertion mutants were created using an EZ-Tn5™ Tnp Transposome™ kit (Epicenter). Copper-sensitive mutants were screened by replica plating kanamycin-resistant colonies on BSM with 3 mM Cu2+ (BSM + 3 mM

Cu; sodium glycerophosphate was used instead of sodium phosphate to reduce copper–phosphate precipitate). Mutants that were not able to grow on BSM + 3 mM Cu but which grew on BSM without copper after incubation for 3 days at 30 °C were regarded as copper-sensitive mutants. Genomic DNA of the copper-sensitive mutants was isolated using a ZR fungal/bacterial DNA miniprep kit (Zymo Research). The genomic regions harboring the insertion of transposon in the copper-sensitive strains were rescued by self-ligation of EcoRI-digested genomic DNA and electroporation into Escherichia coli TransforMax™ EC100D™ (pir+) electrocompetent cells (Epicenter). Plasmid DNA was extracted using a Zyppy plasmid miniprep kit (Zymo Research) from the E. coli transformants selected on LB agar with kanamycin (50 μg mL−1). The sequence flanking the transposon element was sequenced using primers KAN-2 FP-1 and R6KAN-2 RP-1 provided with an EZ-Tn5™ Tnp Transposome™ kit. TLC6-6.5-4 Y 27632 was grown

in 1 mL LB broth with or without 4 mM Cu2+ at 30 °C until OD600 mm reached 0.4. CSM1 and CSM2 grown without oxyclozanide copper were used as controls. Three replicates were used in each group. Total RNA was extracted with an RNeasy Mini kit (Qiagen) and cDNA was synthesized using a QuantiTect

Reverse Transcription kit (Qiagen). Real-time PCR was performed on the StepOnePlus™ system (Applied Biosystems) using Fast SYBR Green Master Mix. Primers for clpA, trpA and gyrB (reference gene) are listed in Supporting Information, Table S1. TLC6-6.5-4 was grown in LB with 4 mM Cu2+ at 30 °C until OD600 mm reached 0.4. TLC6-6.5-4 and copper-sensitive mutant CSM2 grown in LB broth were used as controls. Three replicates were used in each group. Total protein was isolated from the bacterial pellets using the ZOOM® 2D-protein solubilizer kit (Invitrogen). The protein concentration was measured by the Bradford method (Bio-Rad protein assay kit). The protein extract was separated by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (Noel-Georis et al., 2004). The protein spots were visualized by silver staining and scanned with a GS 800 scanner (Bio-Rad) and analyzed using imagemaster 2D-Platinum v7.0 for spot detection, background subtraction and protein spot intensity quantification. Significant changes in protein expression levels were set to at least a twofold change compared with the control group (Miller et al., 2009). Spots of interest were excised from gels and subjected to in-gel trypsin digestion (Shevchenko et al., 2006). The digested peptides were analyzed using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) (Thermo).

They have to have evidence of inability to access public funds; evidence of being an overseas student; or a letter stating that their passport is lodged at the Home Office to gain indefinite leave to remain (asylum seekers and refugees). The Paediatric CNS dispenses infant formula milk monthly from paediatric out-patient clinics for those accessing the ‘ongoing infant formula milk

scheme’. Contact [email protected] for more details and advice on the scheme. Group Chair: Graham P. Taylor, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Staurosporine cost London, UK. Members: Jane Anderson, Homerton University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; Polly Clayden, UK-CAB Representative, HIV i-Base; Brian G. Gazzard, Chelsea and Westminster Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; Jane Fortin, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK; Jane Kennedy, Homerton University Hospital, find more London, UK; Linda Lazarus, Health Protection Agency, UK; Marie-Louise Newell, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK; Beatrice Osoro, UK-CAB Representative,

Positively UK; Susan Sellers, St Michael’s Hospital, Bristol, UK; Pat Tookey, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK; Gareth Tudor-Williams, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK; Amanda Williams, North West London Hospitals NHS Trust, UK; Annemiek de Ruiter, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK. “
“This paper examines changes in barriers to HIV testing amongst gay men. We compared data collected in 2000 and 2010 to assess changes in HIV testing behaviours, in community-level perceptions of Dipeptidyl peptidase barriers to HIV testing, and in the relative contributions of barrier measures. Cross-sectional surveys

were conducted within the commercial gay scene in Glasgow with good response rates (78% and 62%) using a form of time and location sampling. Major changes in HIV testing behaviours were observed between 2000 and 2010 (30.6% increase in testing within previous year). At the community level, the perceived benefits of testing [t (1284) = –8.46; P < 0.001] and the norm for HIV testing [t (1236) = –11.62; P < 0.001] increased; however, other perceived barriers did not change (fear of a positive result, clinic-related barriers and attitudes to sex with HIV-positive men). Multinomial logistic regression showed that fear of a positive test result remained a key barrier to HIV testing; however, a significant fear × year of survey interaction indicated that fear played a lesser role in differentiating those who had never been tested from those who had been tested in 2010 than it had in 2000. These findings suggest the partial normalization of HIV testing. While some barriers have reduced, other key barriers remain important. Interventions should be designed and evaluated that attend to both the biomedical and the psychosocial aspects of HIV testing (e.g.

e. characterization of pMMO and sMMO, and acquisition and handling of copper by methanobactin. However, the recent findings of the large complement of c-type cytochromes in

M. capsulatus Bath, their unusual cellular surface localization, and copper-dependent expression and their putative roles in the copper homeostasis and metabolic flexibility, post-translational modifications (exemplified by the formation of kynurenine in MopE), open new fields of research on this model methanotroph. Importantly, searches for surface exposed c-type cytochromes in a broader range of methanotrophic bacteria may aid addressing these emerging questions. For example, is such redox active Decitabine solubility dmso surface enzymes important for cells to survive in methanotrophic communities distributed in several different redox conditions? Is the presence of such enzymes in methanotrophs linked to the bioavailability of copper, due to the likely limiting copper availability at lower redox conditions which may result in insoluble copper complexes? It has also been shown that c-type cytochromes are involved in the siderophore biosynthesis in other

bacteria (Yip et al., 2011), and it is at present an open question if such enzymes are involved in the maturation of methanobactin in M. capsulatus Bath. Furthermore, several protein families and proteins (e.g. cytochrome c553o family proteins, ‘MCA0445’, ‘MCA0446’ and ‘MCA0347’ and others) still appear to be unique to this bacterium and of unknown function. Importantly, several of these findings indicate a hitherto unrecognized plasticity of the metabolic pathways in M. capsulatus Bath. This plasticity may be essential to the bacterium to efficiently selleck chemicals adapt to a wide variety in copper conditions. In our opinion, many of these observations warrant further research, and have the potential to reveal unanticipated properties important to fully understand the biology and potentials of methanotrophy. This work was supported by the Norwegian Research Council (grant no. 101742). We would like to acknowledge Professor

Johan Lillehaug at the University of Bergen for interesting and useful discussions. “
“Methanotrophs Tenofovir datasheet are a group of phylogenetically diverse microorganisms characterized by their ability to utilize methane as their sole source of carbon and energy. Early studies suggested that growth on methane could be stimulated with the addition of some small organic acids, but initial efforts to find facultative methanotrophs, i.e., methanotrophs able to utilize compounds with carbon–carbon bonds as sole growth substrates were inconclusive. Recently, however, facultative methanotrophs in the genera Methylocella, Methylocapsa, and Methylocystis have been reported that can grow on acetate, as well as on larger organic acids or ethanol for some species. All identified facultative methanotrophs group within the Alphaproteobacteria and utilize the serine cycle for carbon assimilation from formaldehyde.

aeruginosa, at least in the cystic fibrosis setting (Mena et al., 2008). It is interesting to note that there is no such hotspot STR for the acquisition of a strong mutator phenotype in P. aeruginosa MMR genes (Feliziani et al., 2010). As expected from computer simulations of clonal populations adapting to a new environment (Taddei et al., 1997), CTGGCG insertions or deletions may hitchhike on a strong mutator genotype, generate favorable

mutations, and drive adaptive radiation (Rainey & Travisano, 1998). The conditions that lead to conversions between mutator and normomutator phenotypes are not yet well understood. There are clear examples in nature such as antibiotic resistance (Maciá et al., 2005) or adaptation in chronic infections (Mena et al., 2008). Trichostatin A mw In the strong mutator STM HS20 strain detected in this work, the ATPase activity of MutL, which is required for mismatch repair (Spampinato & Modrich, 2000), may be altered by the insertion of LA in the ATPase domain of the protein. This observation suggests that a possible link between the acquisition of a strong mutator phenotype and ATP consumption may exist. The conditions that lead to conversions between strong mutator and normomutator see more phenotypes are not yet well understood. Thus, the study of strong mutator strains, especially clinical ones

as such as this described in this work, may help expand our knowledge and provide clinically useful information given that there is a high prevalence of strong mutators among strains, not only observed in constructed mutants, but also in pathogenic clinical specimens. This work was supported by the Conseil Régional d’Ille-et-Vilaine and the Fondation Langlois and Europe Council. We thank A. M. Gouraud, C. Le Lann, and P. Gautier for technical assistance. We thank

CHU Pontchaillou (Rennes, France) for providing technical support, and D. Noysette and the not microbiologists at hospitals in Angers, Brest, Lorient, Quimper, Rennes, Saint-Brieuc, and Vannes for supplying the clinical isolates of Salmonella. We thank the LMBP 3889 and BCCM/LMBP plasmid collections (Gent, Belgium) for the SM10 λpir strains, and D. Schneider at the Université Joseph Fourier for pDS132. We thank Andrea Feliziani at the Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (Córdoba, Argentina) for helpful discussions. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. “
“Laboratoire d’ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire (INSERM UMR_S 1109), Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg Cedex, France Ascendis Pharma GmbH, Heidelberg, Germany We report a genome-wide transcriptomic study of Fusarium graminearum grown on four different substrates based on plant cell wall components. About 5% of the genes were differentially expressed in at least one condition.

38; 95% CI 1.16, 1.64). In the subgroup of 3331 patients with nonmissing HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and TG

data, TG > 150 mg/dL (PR = 1.61; 95% CI 1.33, 1.94) was significantly associated with an increased risk of elevated ALT. LDL cholesterol > 130 mg/dL was associated with a 31% reduced prevalence of elevated ALT (PR = 0.69; 95% CI 0.49, 0.97) and no independent effect of HDL cholesterol was observed. This study is, to our knowledge, the first and one of the largest studies to examine the prevalence and risk factors associated with elevated ALT in HIV-infected individuals prior to ART initiation in an African setting. Three notable findings were the relatively high prevalence of ALT elevations > 40 IU/L; the significant association between elevated

selleck ALT and male sex, immunosuppression and components of the metabolic syndrome (elevated TG, hyperglycaemia and obesity), Trametinib solubility dmso and finally the interesting finding of a protective effect of pregnancy, anaemia and current TB treatment. It should be noted that all these associations were independent of treatment with ART. The prevalence of elevated ALT (13%) found in our study is lower than that reported among pre-ART HIV-infected individuals [7, 13, 16, 17, 22] in Europe and North America, where rates vary between 19 and 29%, but similar to the findings of studies from Africa [8, 23]. In a multinational study of HIV-infected patients in Kenya, Zambia and Thailand, baseline ALT > 40 IU/L was present in about 14% of 812 HIV-infected patients [23]. Similar figures were reported in a rural community in Uganda [8]. There are several reasons for this difference. First, in the studies from Europe and North/South

America, male patients represented between 63 and 94% of the study population, whereas in our study female patients accounted for 71% of the study population [7, 13, 16, 17, 22]. Secondly, an inverse relationship between Black ethnicity and chronic ALT elevation has been reported in several studies of HIV-infected patients [5, 14]. Thirdly, a lower prevalence of viral HBV and HCV infections, obesity and dyslipidaemia was observed in our study population, all of which have been shown to be associated with elevations in ALT [13, 14]. Branched chain aminotransferase In multivariate analyses, we found a number of factors associated with elevated ALT > 40 IU/L. Two notable findings were the significant associations between elevated ALT and reduced CD4 count and worsening WHO clinical HIV stage; and between elevated ALT and components of the metabolic syndrome, including elevated BMI, hypertriglyceridaemia and hyperglycaemia. Our finding of an increased risk for elevated ALT among people with severe immune depression is similar to findings from a study by Sterling et al., where HIV-infected patients with a CD4 count < 200 cells/μL had a 57% excess risk for elevated ALT compared with those with a CD4 count ≥ 200 cells/μL [13].

It has been shown that patients harbouring M184V due to 3TC failure who continue on 3TC monotherapy maintain lower VLs than at baseline and rarely develop

new RT or protease mutations [73]. Moreover, ceasing 3TC monotherapy has been demonstrated to result in replication capacity recovery and a reduction in CD4/CD8 ratio driven by the de-selection of the M184V mutation [74]. This strategy is supported by the E-184 study which was a small but randomized, open-label study of 3TC monotherapy vs. no therapy in patients failing ART [75]. Monotherapy was associated with significant smaller increases in VL, smaller declines in CD4 cell counts, and no selection of additional RT mutations. Finally, the presence of M184V mutation

enhances in www.selleckchem.com/products/17-AAG(Geldanamycin).html vitro susceptibility to TDF and this translated into a significant HIV RNA response in clinical trials of TDF intensification [76, 77]. “
“The acquisition of adequate vaccine-induced humoral immunity is especially important in HIV-infected individuals, who are at increased risk of infections. The aim of the study was to assess the safety of administering a complete vaccination programme to successfully treated HIV-infected adults and to evaluate see more specific humoral responses and the effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) interruption on these responses. A placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial was designed and 26 HIV-infected adults enrolled. Study participants were randomized to receive either a complete immunization schedule with commercial vaccines or placebo for 12 months. HAART was then discontinued for 6 months. Specific humoral responses were evaluated at baseline, at month 12 and after HAART interruption and compared between groups. There were neither local nor systemic secondary effects related to vaccination. Specific humoral responses to vaccines were adequate, but a loss of immunoglobulin G titres was observed

after HAART interruption in 12 study participants. HAART interruption may cause impairment second of previously acquired vaccine-induced immunity in HIV-infected adults. The generation of large pools of T and B memory lymphocytes is required to achieve a successful immunological response to vaccination [1,2]. In addition, the duration of humoral and cellular responses to common vaccine antigens is critical for protective immunity against many pathogens and may last for several years after immunization in healthy subjects [3]. HIV-infected individuals are especially at risk of common preventable infections as a result of their immunocompromised status. Currently recommended vaccines in HIV-infected adults include: tetanus-diphtheria, influenza, pneumococcal, hepatitis A and hepatitis B [4]. However, like other immunocompromised groups, HIV-infected individuals present impaired humoral and cellular responses to vaccines because of T and B lymphocyte dysfunction [5,6].

It has been shown that patients harbouring M184V due to 3TC failure who continue on 3TC monotherapy maintain lower VLs than at baseline and rarely develop

new RT or protease mutations [73]. Moreover, ceasing 3TC monotherapy has been demonstrated to result in replication capacity recovery and a reduction in CD4/CD8 ratio driven by the de-selection of the M184V mutation [74]. This strategy is supported by the E-184 study which was a small but randomized, open-label study of 3TC monotherapy vs. no therapy in patients failing ART [75]. Monotherapy was associated with significant smaller increases in VL, smaller declines in CD4 cell counts, and no selection of additional RT mutations. Finally, the presence of M184V mutation

enhances in Selleckchem GSI-IX vitro susceptibility to TDF and this translated into a significant HIV RNA response in clinical trials of TDF intensification [76, 77]. “
“The acquisition of adequate vaccine-induced humoral immunity is especially important in HIV-infected individuals, who are at increased risk of infections. The aim of the study was to assess the safety of administering a complete vaccination programme to successfully treated HIV-infected adults and to evaluate Selleck JQ1 specific humoral responses and the effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) interruption on these responses. A placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial was designed and 26 HIV-infected adults enrolled. Study participants were randomized to receive either a complete immunization schedule with commercial vaccines or placebo for 12 months. HAART was then discontinued for 6 months. Specific humoral responses were evaluated at baseline, at month 12 and after HAART interruption and compared between groups. There were neither local nor systemic secondary effects related to vaccination. Specific humoral responses to vaccines were adequate, but a loss of immunoglobulin G titres was observed

after HAART interruption in 12 study participants. HAART interruption may cause impairment Dolutegravir cell line of previously acquired vaccine-induced immunity in HIV-infected adults. The generation of large pools of T and B memory lymphocytes is required to achieve a successful immunological response to vaccination [1,2]. In addition, the duration of humoral and cellular responses to common vaccine antigens is critical for protective immunity against many pathogens and may last for several years after immunization in healthy subjects [3]. HIV-infected individuals are especially at risk of common preventable infections as a result of their immunocompromised status. Currently recommended vaccines in HIV-infected adults include: tetanus-diphtheria, influenza, pneumococcal, hepatitis A and hepatitis B [4]. However, like other immunocompromised groups, HIV-infected individuals present impaired humoral and cellular responses to vaccines because of T and B lymphocyte dysfunction [5,6].

The RSFC of ventrolateral frontal areas 6, 44 and 45 was consistent with patterns of anatomical connectivity shown in the macaque. We observed a striking dissociation between RSFC for the ventral part of area 6 that is involved in orofacial motor control and RSFC associated with Broca’s region (areas 44 and 45). These findings indicate rich and differential RSFC patterns for the ventrolateral frontal areas controlling language production, consistent with known anatomical connectivity in the macaque brain, and suggest conservation of connectivity

during the evolution of the primate brain. The ventrolateral frontal region, which includes Brodmann areas 6, 44 and 45, in the left hemisphere of the human brain, has been implicated in language processing since Broca’s (1861) description of the eponymous speech disorder. Later, Wernicke (1874)

suggested that posterior temporal cortex is important selleck compound for the receptive aspects of language, leading to the concept of a fronto-temporal language circuit linked via the arcuate fasciculus (Geschwind, 1970). Research on the effects of lesions and electrical stimulation during brain surgery, and recent functional neuroimaging studies, have shown that the posterior language zone includes not only posterior temporal cortex, but also the supramarginal and angular gyri of the inferior parietal lobule (Penfield & Roberts, 1959; Rasmussen & Milner, 1975; Ojemann et al., 1989; Binder et al., 1997). Explorations of the structural selleck chemical connectivity of these regions with diffusion tensor imaging (DTI; Catani et al., 2005; Croxson et al., 2005; Frey et al., 2008; Saur et al., 2008) suggest that, in addition to the classical arcuate fasciculus, ventrolateral frontal cortex interacts with inferior parietal

lobule via the superior longitudinal fasciculus and the P-type ATPase lateral temporal cortex via the extreme capsule fasciculus, as originally shown in the macaque monkey (Petrides & Pandya, 1984, 1988). Although DTI studies can provide evidence about major white matter pathways, current methodological limitations do not allow precise delineation of the origins and terminations of these pathways. As such, experimental tracer studies in non-human primates remain the gold standard for uncovering the precise origins and terminations of cortico-cortical connections. Recently, resting state functional connectivity (RSFC) analyses, which detect coherent low-frequency fluctuations in blood oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signal, have emerged as a valuable non-invasive method for mapping the functional circuitry of the brain that is complementary to DTI. Correspondence between RSFC and anatomical connectivity is not 1 : 1, as RSFC has been observed between regions lacking direct anatomical connections (Vincent et al., 2007; Di Martino et al., 2008; Uddin et al., 2008).