Low Rubisco activity was detected that could not account for the carbon dioxide (CO2) fixation rate; in addition, phosphoribulokinase activity was not found. The generation of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate from 5-phospho-d-ribose 1-pyrophosphate was observed, but not from AMP; these sources for ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate have been proposed before. Our data indicate that the reductive acetyl-CoA pathway is the only functioning CO2 fixation pathway in ‘A.

lithotrophicus’. To date, six autotrophic carbon dioxide (CO2) fixation pathways have been found in nature, three of which AMPK inhibitor occur in Archaea (Berg et al., 2010a). Whereas Crenarchaeota use either the dicarboxylate/hydroxybutyrate or the hydroxypropionate/hydroxybutyrate cycle (Fig. 1), all autotrophic Euryarchaeota studied so far use the reductive acetyl-CoA pathway (Fig. 1c) (Berg et al., 2010a). The functioning of this pathway in Euryarchaeota conforms to the fact that most autotrophic Euryarchaeota are methanogens. They use much of the enzymes involved in energy generation during methanogenesis also for autotrophic acetyl-CoA synthesis. The only known exceptions to

this rule are members of Archaeoglobi (Huber & Stetter, 2001) and perhaps Ferroplasma acidiphilum (Golyshina et al., 2000), whose ability to grow autotrophically was questioned (Dopson et al., 2004). Representatives of the class Archaeoglobi (with only one order and one family, Archaeoglobales and Archaeoglobaceae) are hyperthermophiles selleck kinase inhibitor that grow by means

of anaerobic respiration by oxidizing organic substrates or molecular hydrogen (in some cases, also Fe2+ or S2−) (Huber & Stetter, 2001). The Archaeoglobaceae comprise three OSBPL9 genera: Archaeoglobus, Ferroglobus and Geoglobus. Besides Archaeoglobus profundus and Archaeoglobus infectus, all species can grow autotrophically, with ‘Archaeoglobus lithotrophicus’ being an obligate autotroph (Stetter et al., 1993). Biochemical studies revealed the presence of the enzymes of the reductive acetyl-CoA pathway in ‘A. lithotrophicus’ and Ferroglobus placidus (Vorholt et al., 1995, 1997). The corresponding genes also exist in the Archaeoglobus fulgidus genome (Klenk et al., 1997), whereas the genome of the heterotrophic A. profundus lacks the gene for the key enzyme of this pathway, CO-dehydrogenase/acetyl-CoA synthase (von Jan et al., 2010). Therefore, these data suggest that autotrophic Archaeoglobaceae use the reductive acetyl-CoA pathway for CO2 fixation. Interestingly, the genome of A. fulgidus also harbors, besides the genes of the reductive acetyl-CoA pathway, three copies of genes encoding homologues of the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase. In contrast, this key enzyme of the dicarboxylate/hydroxybutyrate and hydroxypropionate/hydroxybutyrate cycles is absent in the heterotrophic A. profundus.

In order to measure the transcript levels of proteins identified in this study, seven genes out of 18 were selected for RT-PCR in the wild-type L. monocytogenes and ΔsigB mutant and the relative mRNA levels were measured. To quantify mRNA levels, the band density of each PCR product was measured after agarose gel electrophoresis. As shown in Fig. 2, the transcript levels are consistent with the proteomic data. Moreover, transcription of the identified genes, including gyrB, lmo1374, ftsA mTOR inhibitor and lmo2779, are directly or indirectly under the control of σB. No RT-PCR products were observed in the negative

control (data not shown). MG-132 mouse The role of the L. monocytogenesσB under stress conditions has been studied intensively, especially under osmotic, cold, acid, high hydrostatic pressure or oxidative stress (Cole et al.,

1990; Sleator et al., 2001; Wemekamp-Kamphuis et al., 2004). Recently, the relationship between alternative sigma factor and antimicrobial resistance has been reported in various bacteria. In B. subtilis, sigma factors σM, σW and σX contribute to resistance to various cell envelope-targeting antibiotics (Mascher et al., 2007). In addition, σB contributes to the upregulation of its own regulon upon exposure to bacitracin or vancomycin (Mascher et al., 2003). In L. monocytogenes, σB is important for growth and survival upon treatment with bacteriocin (lacticin 3147 and nisin) or antibiotics (penicillin G and ampicillin) (Begley et al., 2006). According to a recent report, both σB and σL contribute to tolerance Meloxicam to the antimicrobial peptide SdpC and the bacteriocin nisin in L. monocytogenes (Palmer et al., 2009). Antibiotic-induced cell wall stress is known to induce the expression of many genes. In our two independent proteomic analyses, 18 vancomycin-inducible proteins were identified with minimum twofold upregulation in

the wild-type L. monocytogenes compared with the ΔsigB mutant. Among these proteins, Lmo0539, Lmo0524, Lmo2085, Lmo2114, Pgm, InlD, Lmo1027 and Lmo0079 were already confirmed to be σB-dependent proteins induced under salt or stationary-phase stress (Kazmierczak et al., 2003; Raengpradub et al., 2008; Oliver et al., 2009). Among the three transporter proteins identified under vancomycin stress, Lmo0524 and Lmo1431 were induced only in wild-type L. monocytogenes, whereas Lmo2114 showed a 3.5-fold increase in the wild-type strain (Table 2). Indeed, bacitracin treatment highly stimulated the bceAB gene, which encodes a putative ABC transporter in B.

Taken together, these data point to the existence of two subgroups of medium spiny neurons with distinct properties, each displaying unique abilities to undergo synaptic plasticity. “
“To investigate the role of purinergic P2 receptors under ischemia, we studied the effect of P2 receptor antagonists on synaptic transmission

and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation under oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) in rat hippocampal slices. The effect of the P2 antagonists pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2′,4′-disulfonate (PPADS, unselective, 30 μm), N 6-methyl-2′-deoxyadenosine-3′,5′-bisphosphate (MRS2179, selective for P2Y1 receptor, 10 μm), Brilliant Blue G (BBG, selective for P2X7 receptor, 1 μm), and 5-[[[(3-phenoxyphenyl)methyl][(1S)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1-naphthalenyl]amino]carbonyl]-1,2,4-benzenetricarboxylic acid (A-317491, selective for P2X3 receptor, 10 μm), and of the newly synthesized P2X3 receptor antagonists GPCR Compound Library ic50 2-amino-9-(5-iodo-2-isopropyl-4-methoxybenzyl)adenine (PX21, 1 μm) and 2-amino-9-(5-iodo-2-isopropyl-4-methoxybenzyl)-N 6-methyladenine (PX24, 1 μm), on the depression of field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) and anoxic depolarization (AD) elicited by 7 min of OGD were evaluated. All antagonists significantly prevented these effects.

The extent of CA1 cell injury was assessed 3 h after the end of 7 min of OGD by propidium iodide staining. Substantial CA1 pyramidal neuronal damage, detected in untreated slices exposed to OGD injury, was significantly prevented by PPADS Selumetinib (30 μm), MRS2179 (10 μm), and BBG (1 μm). Western blot analysis showed that, 10 min after the end of the 7 min of OGD, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 MAPK activation was significantly increased. MRS2179, BBG, PPADS and A-317491 significantly counteracted Methamphetamine ERK1/2 activation. Hippocampal slices incubated with the ERK1/2 inhibitors 1,4-diamino-2,3-dicyano-1,4-bis(2-aminophenylthio)butadiene (U0126, 10 μm) and α-[amino[(4-aminophenyl)thio]methylene]-2-(trifluoromethyl) benzeneacetonitrile (SL327, 10 μm) showed significant fEPSP recovery after OGD and delayed AD, supporting the involvement of ERK1/2 in neuronal damage induced by OGD. These results

indicate that subtypes of hippocampal P2 purinergic receptors have a harmful effect on neurotransmission in the CA1 hippocampus by participating in AD appearance and activation of ERK1/2. “
“The motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease (PD) are commonly attributed to striatal dopamine loss, but reduced dopamine innervation of basal ganglia output nuclei, the internal globus pallidus (GPi) and the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) may also contribute to symptoms and signs of PD. Both structures express dopamine D1 and D5 receptors under normal conditions, and we have recently demonstrated that their local activation reduces neuronal discharge rates and enhances bursts and oscillatory activity in both nuclei of normal monkeys [M.A. Kliem et al. (2007)J.

, 1983). Modulation of the light emission spectrum is often observed among luminous organisms, such as Aequorea victoria (Shimomura et al., 1962), and has been observed in three species of luminous bacteria (Photobacterium phosphoreum, Photobacterium leiognathi, and Aliivibrio sifiae strain Y1 [formerly known as Vibrio fischeri strain Y1]). The mechanism of this phenomenon was initially characterized in P. phosphoreum strain A-13 (Gast UK-371804 cost & Lee, 1978). The maximal emission wavelength (λmax ≈ 476 nm) of this

strain is blue-shifted in comparison with that of purified luciferase (λmax ≈ 490 nm). Gast & Lee (1978) showed that this blue shift was caused by the involvement of an accessory blue fluorescent protein, of which the fluorescent spectrum was identical to the in vivo light emission spectrum. This protein was also found in P. leiognathi (O’Kane et al., 1985) and is now called lumazine protein (LumP). LumP has 6,7-dimethyl-8-(1′-d-ribityl) lumazine as its chromophore (Koka & Lee, 1979). In

another case, an accessory yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) was discovered Sirolimus price in the yellow-light-emitting V. fischeri strain Y1 (Daubner et al., 1987), which has been recently reclassified as A. sifiae (Ast et al., 2009; Yoshizawa et al., 2010b). YFP modulates the light emission wavelength of bacterial luciferase to yellow (λmax ≈ 540 nm). These proteins are involved

in the luciferase reaction, and it is generally accepted that the peak emission wavelengths of the light emission spectra are shifted to shorter or longer wavelengths that correspond to the spectra of these fluorescent proteins (Gast & Lee, 1978; Small et al., 1980; Karatani et al., 1992). There are, however, no reports of an accessory fluorescent protein in bacteria of the genus Tryptophan synthase Vibrio. The aim of this study was to explore luminous bacteria with modulated light emission in the genus Vibrio and to see whether these bacterial strains carry an accessory fluorescent protein. We performed detailed analyses of the light emission spectra and the luxA gene sequences in 16 strains of four luminous Vibrio species (Vibrio harveyi, Vibrio campbellii, Vibrio azureus, and Vibrio jasicida). Multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) was used for bacterial identification. Furthermore, the protein involved in the shift was purified and subjected to spectral base characterization in vitro. As a result, we obtained a new fluorescent protein responsible for the blue-shifted light emission of V. azureus. We used 16 luminous strains of genus Vibrio (Table 1). Bacterial strains newly reported in this study were isolated from seawater samples from Sagami Bay (35°00′N, 139°20′E), the Pacific equatorial zone, and Aburatsubo Inlet (35°09′N, 139°36′E).

, 2008). Two additional genes, contained selleckchem in an

operon with amtB, have also been proposed to be under GlnR control: glnK (msmeg_2426; PII-type protein) and glnD (msmeg_2427; an adenylyl-transferase enzyme) (Amon et al., 2008). Therefore, glnA1, amtB and amt1 were selected for analysis in this study. Four other genes were also chosen for investigation owing to their proposed role in nitrogen metabolism in Mycobacteria (Amon et al., 2009). These were amtA (msmeg_4635), an ammonium transporter; nirB (msmeg_0427), a nitrite reductase enzyme; gltD (msmeg_3226), a glutamate synthase enzyme involved in glutamate synthesis during nitrogen limitation; and glnE (msmeg_4293), a bifunctional adenylyl-transferase thought to modulate GS enzymatic activity. Expression of glnR (msmeg_5784) itself was also included. Wild-type and mutant strains were grown in nitrogen-limiting or nitrogen-excess conditions for 13 h. Expression values for each gene analysed were compared with the housekeeping gene sigA (msmeg_2758) whose expression did not alter in the conditions tested (data not shown). Genes previously shown to be under GlnR control, glnA1, amtB and amt1, were all highly up-regulated in the wild type during nitrogen limitation when compared with their expression in nitrogen-excess conditions (Fig. 2). glnA1 expression was induced approximately 13-fold, amtB 153-fold and amt1 219-fold (Table 3). However, there was no induction of these genes in either GlnR mutant

grown under nitrogen limitation Chloroambucil (Fig. 2 and Table 3). To account for the fact that the GlnR mutants deplete the external ammonium at a slower rate than the wild type (Fig. 1) and RO4929097 mw may not be stressed at 13 h, we repeated the qRT-PCR using samples taken at 19 h, when external nitrogen was no longer detectable. However, there was also no induction of gene expression in either mutant at this later time point (data not shown). Transcriptional control of other genes proposed to be involved in mycobacterial nitrogen metabolism, not shown previously to be under GlnR control, was subsequently investigated. Figure 3 shows that amtA, gltD and nirB were up-regulated in the wild-type strain in response

to nitrogen limitation at 13 h, compared with nitrogen excess, while glnE expression was down-regulated. During nitrogen limitation, amtA was induced approximately 337-fold, nirB 103-fold and gltD 8-fold; glnE was down-regulated 3-fold. Again, no significant change in the expression levels of these genes was observed in the GlnR mutants at either 13 h (Fig. 3 and Table 3) or 19 h (data not shown). To exclude the possibility that the GlnR_D48A mutation inhibited glnR expression, leading to the observed null phenotype of this strain, transcriptomic analysis of glnR was performed. No significant change in glnR expression was observed under nitrogen-limiting conditions for either the wild type or GlnR_D48A mutant (Table 3 and Fig. 2), confirming previous observations that M.

e. from EoA to retention) revealed a significant effect of stimulation condition (anovaRM, P = 0.043). Post-hoc analysis revealed that AtDCS applied over PMd significantly selleck chemicals attenuated offline learning compared with AtDCS over M1 (P = 0.028) or sham stimulation (P = 0.031; Fig. 3). We investigated the online and offline changes in motor performance resulting from AtDCS applied over M1 and PMd during practice of an implicit

motor sequence. AtDCS applied over M1 enhanced practice performance compared with sham stimulation and also supported offline stabilization of the motor sequence. In contrast, PMd stimulation with AtDCS during practice attenuated offline stabilization of the motor sequence compared with sham and M1 stimulation. Imaging studies during practice of implicitly acquired motor sequences have indicated that M1 is actively engaged during acquisition to promote online changes in performance (Pascual-Leone et al., 1994; Doyon et al., 1997; Honda et al., 1998). Recently, non-invasive brain stimulation techniques have allowed the exploration and modulation of motor learning by enhancing or suppressing the excitability of M1 (Reis et al., 2008; Bolognini et al., 2009; Stagg et al., 2011b). Similar to previously reported findings, we observed that AtDCS over M1 during motor

practice enhanced online changes in motor performance of an implicit motor sequence (Nitsche et al., 2003; Kang & Paik, 2011). AtDCS over M1 improved the performance of the practiced sequence during acquisition as well as at the EoA. The benefit others of AtDCS

over M1 was specific to the practiced sequence Dabrafenib cost and did not change the performance of the random sequence. This indicates that the tDCS online learning effect is implemented by modulation of learning-related mechanisms, and not by an overall change in general motor behavior. While AtDCS is predominantly known to increase motor cortical excitability by altering the membrane potential (Stagg & Nitsche, 2011), behavioral effects on sequence learning may involve a decrease in gamma-aminobutyric acid (Stagg et al., 2011a) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor-dependent synaptic plasticity (Fritsch et al., 2010). Even after practice ends, M1 is actively engaged in post-practice processes that help stabilize (memory stabilization) or enhance (offline learning) sequence performance over the retention interval. Our hypothesis was similar to those proposed for previous studies (Reis et al., 2009; Tecchio et al., 2010) – enhancing M1 activity with AtDCS will enhance online and offline learning of the practiced sequence. Our findings did not support the offline component of our hypothesis. In the current study, although AtDCS over M1 during practice supported offline stabilization of motor performance, it did not enhance offline learning compared with sham stimulation. These differences may arise from difference in our methods compared with the other studies. Reis et al.

, 2008;

Seo et al., 2009 and references therein). In the degradation of phenanthrene, 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid has largely been shown to be one of the intermediates, which can be further degraded either via the phthalate pathway or by the salicylate pathway. However, in the last decade, several studies documented the formation of 2-hydroxy-1-naphthoic acid along with 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid in the degradation of phenanthrene (Balashova et al., 1999; Pinyakong et al., 2000; Kim et al., 2005; Keum et al., 2006; Seo et al., 2006, 2007). SCH772984 In one of the routes, hydroxynaphthoic acids were reported to be transformed to 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene, which was then metabolized by the classical naphthalene degradation pathway via salicylic acid, while in the other route, 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid was metabolized by ortho-cleavage dioxygenase, leading to the formation tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates

via phthalic acid and protocatechuic acid. However, Mallick et al. (2007) reported for the first time the meta-cleavage of 2-hydroxy-1-naphthoic acid leading to the formation of salicylic acid in the degradation of phenanthrene by a Gram-positive bacterium. Although ortho-cleavage of 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid has been reported from both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (Kiyohara Epigenetics Compound Library chemical structure et al., 1976; Adachi et al., 1999; Zeinali et al., 2008), until now, there has been no report on the meta-cleavage activity of either of the hydroxyl-naphthoic acids

from Gram-negative species, which are widely reported to be involved in the degradation of phenanthrene. Among Gram-negative bacteria, the biodegradative potential of the genus Ochrobactrum Flavopiridol (Alvocidib) has been revealed only recently (El-Sayed et al., 2003; Katsivela et al., 2003; Qiu et al., 2006; Zhong et al., 2007; Yamada et al., 2008). Although Ochrobactrum species are found to be distributed in a wide variety of environmental sources including sewage, soil rhizosphere, animal and human, there is no comprehensive biochemical report on the degradation of PAHs. The present communication describes the isolation and characterization of Gram-negative Ochrobactrum sp. strain PWTJD involved in the assimilation of phenanthrene via meta-cleavage of 2-hydroxy-1-naphthoic acid. The test organism used in this study (strain PWTJD) was isolated from municipal waste-contaminated soil (Dhapa, Kolkata, India) using the enrichment culture technique with phenanthrene as the sole source of carbon and energy. The morphological features of the isolate capable of utilizing phenanthrene were studied using a phase-contrast microscope (Olympus CX40, Olympus, Japan). Conventional biochemical tests were performed using standard methods (Kloos & Schleifer, 1986; Smibert & Krieg, 1994). The 16S rRNA gene was amplified using universal bacterial-specific primers f27 and r1492 (Goodwin et al., 2005) and was sequenced according to the manufacturer’s specifications (Perkin-Elmer Applied Biosystems).

Depressive symptoms are associated with how problems are viewed and solved, and it is essential to provide training in problem-solving [28,29]. Self-reported stress and loneliness seemed to be very strong predictors of depression. Stress is difficult to define because it can cover many conditions.

It can refer to the strain involved, to the physical and mental changes taking place in the body and to an individual’s sense of inadequacy. Qualitative studies are needed to provide further information on defining stress in this context. A meta-analysis concluded that overall, stress-management interventions for HIV-positive adults significantly selleck chemicals llc improved mental health and quality of life [30]. Low educational level, being unemployed and receiving sickness or disability benefits were associated

with risk of depression. Bing et al. [4] and Asch et al. [7] showed similar findings. Predictors of employment could be influenced by depression, or the opposite. A longitudinal study found that parameters associated with unemployment were financial situation (disability benefits), past/current diagnosis of major depression and/or dysthymia, medical condition (physical limitations), cognitive function (executive function) and educational level [31]. Risk of depression was higher among homosexual individuals compared to heterosexuals. Berg et al. [13] and Chander et al. [10] Selleckchem Erismodegib found similar

results. A hopeless financial situation was a strong predictor for symptoms of depression. One study found that baseline financial worries were associated with low adherence [32]. No studies were found focusing on HIV, depression and financial worries, but there are several studies of other chronic diseases and depression in general that have found the same association [33]. Depression others in itself is connected for unsafe sex and thus the risk of transmitting HIV to others or contracting HIV [30]. The study showed that depressed HIV-positive patients reported having more unsafe sex compared to HIV-positive patients not at risk of depression, with an OR of 2.2 (95% CI 1.0–4.7) times higher for unsafe sex among HIV-positive patients with a moderate to major risk of depression (BDI>19) compared to other HIV-positive patients. There was a correlation between the degree of risk of depression and unsafe sex, number of partners and reporting not being satisfied with one’s sex life. In this study, patients at risk of depression had a 5.6 times higher risk of non-adherence to antiretroviral treatment. This is consistent with the existing literature [9,10,34]. A Danish study concluded that about 30% of 887 HIV patients reported being depressed; this group had a lower adherence compared to those who did not report being depressed [35].

“
“Vertebrate inner-ear hair cells use mechanical feedback to amplify sound-induced vibrations. The gain of click here this ‘cochlear amplifier’ is centrally controlled via efferent fibres that, making synaptic contacts with the hair cells, modulate the feedback gain. The sensory neurons of the Drosophila ear likewise employ mechanical feedback to assist sound-evoked vibrations, yet whether this neuron-based feedback is also subject to efferent control has remained uncertain. We show here that the function of Drosophila auditory neurons is independent of efferent modulation, and that no synaptic transmission is needed to control the gain of mechanical

feedback amplification. Immunohistochemical, mechanical and electrophysiological analyses revealed that the Drosophila auditory organ lacks peripheral synapses and efferent innervations, and that blocking synaptic transmission in a pan-neural manner does not affect the afferent electrical

activity of the sensory neurons or the mechanical feedback gain. Hence, unlike the cochlear amplifier of vertebrates, mechanical feedback amplification in Drosophila is not associated with an efferent control system but seems to be a purely local process that is solely controlled peripherally within the ear itself. “
“The drastic loss of cholinergic projection neurons in the basal forebrain is a hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and drugs most frequently applied for the treatment of dementia Clomifene include inhibitors of the acetylcholine-degrading Selleck Roscovitine enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE). This protein is known to act as a ligand of β-amyloid (Aβ) in senile plaques, a further neuropathological sign of AD. Recently, we have shown that the fluorescent, heterodimeric AChE inhibitor PE154 allows for the histochemical staining of cortical Aβ plaques in triple-transgenic (TTG)

mice with age-dependent β-amyloidosis and tau hyperphosphorylation, an established animal model for aspects of AD. In the present study, we have primarily demonstrated the targeting of Aβ-immunopositive plaques with PE154 in vivo for 4 h up to 1 week after injection into the hippocampi of 13–20-month-old TTG mice. Numerous plaques, double-stained for PE154 and Aβ-immunoreactivity, were revealed by confocal laser-scanning microscopy. Additionally, PE154 targeted hippocampal Aβ deposits in aged TTG mice after injection of carboxylated polyglycidylmethacrylate nanoparticles delivering the fluorescent marker in vivo. Furthermore, biodegradable core-shell polystyrene/polybutylcyanoacrylate nanoparticles were found to be suitable, alternative vehicles for PE154 as a useful in vivo label of Aβ. Moreover, we were able to demonstrate that PE154 targeted Aβ, but neither phospho-tau nor reactive astrocytes surrounding the plaques. In conclusion, nanoparticles appear as versatile carriers of AChE inhibitors and other promising drugs for the treatment of AD.

Conceivably, inactivating the single gls24 gene of E. hirae is a lethal event. Copper binds to CopZ in a solvent-exposed position (Huffman & O’Halloran, 2001) and Cu+–CopZ could participate in a Fenton-type reaction that generates toxic radicals Selleck INK128 (Kocha et al., 1997). The toxicity of Cu+–CopZ is supported by the findings that CopZ overexpression resulted in increased sensitivity of E. hirae to copper and oxidative stress (Lu & Solioz, 2001). One could speculate that Gls24 binds to Cu+–CopZ to protect the exposed copper and/or to present CopZ to a protease

for degradation. Such a function of Gls24 would resemble that of SspB of E. coli, which is also a partially unstructured, 20-kDa protein induced

by nutrient starvation (Levchenko et al., 2000). SspB recognizes SspA-tagged peptides and enhances their degradation by the ClpXP protease system. The partially unfolded structure of Gls24 could conceivably be a key feature for its interaction with CopZ. Clearly, further investigations are required to elucidate the molecular role of Gls24 and other Gls24-like proteins. We are grateful to Barbara Murray, University of Texas, for providing the antibody to Gls24. This work was supported by grant 3100A0_122551 from the Swiss National Foundation, a grant from the International Copper Association, and a grant from the Lundbeckfonden, Denmark (KRP). S.M. and J.V.S contributed equally to this work. Caspase inhibitor “
“Bradyrhizobium japonicum has two types of flagella. One has thin filaments consisting of the 33-kDa flagellins FliCI and FliCII (FliCI-II) and the other has thick filaments consisting of the 65-kDa flagellins FliC1, FliC2, FliC3, and FliC4 (FliC1-4). To investigate the roles of each flagellum in competition for nodulation, we obtained mutants deleted in fliCI-II and/or fliC1-4 in the genomic backgrounds of two derivatives from the reference strain USDA 110: the streptomycin-resistant cAMP derivative LP 3004 and its more motile derivative

LP 3008. All mutations diminished swimming motility. When each mutant was co-inoculated with the parental strain on soybean plants cultivated in vermiculite either at field capacity or flooded, their competitiveness differed according to the flagellin altered. ΔfliCI-II mutants were more competitive, occupying 64–80% of the nodules, while ΔfliC1-4 mutants occupied 45–49% of the nodules. Occupation by the nonmotile double mutant decreased from 55% to 11% as the water content of the vermiculite increased from 85% to 95% field capacity to flooding. These results indicate that the influence of motility on competitiveness depended on the water status of the rooting substrate. The symbiotic nitrogen fixation between legumes and rhizobia is unique in the sense that plants can satisfy all of their nitrogen requirements without resorting to soil nitrogen.