Stable isotope values are reported separately (Bentzen et al., companion paper). The research project, CONACYT-SALUD 2010-C01-140272 Alectinib (also known as “Antioxidant response in breast milk to the presence of chemical contamination”), was approved by the Baja California Sur Chapter of the National Mexican Academy for Bioethics. Demographic and epidemiological data were collected through a survey. The questionnaire requested information on age, parity (1st, 2nd or 3 or more), body weight, and height. Weight and height were used to calculate the body mass index [BMI = weight (kg)/height squared (m2)]. General food consumption data covered 30 days prior

to hair sample collection. No information was obtained about meal portion

size, recipes, or preparation methods. Finfish and shellfish intake frequency data were grouped into four categories: not consumed; consumed once a month; consumed once every two weeks; and consumed more than twice a week. Information about tobacco smoke exposure was also requested and categorized as: smoker; passive exposure; and non-smoker. Informed consent http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Bortezomib.html was obtained from all participants. Hair samples were prepared for [THg] segmental analyses to assess potential temporal variability (analysis of multiple segments per hair sample). The proximal end (segment) of the samples was identified and marked with thread. Each hair sample was tied with white thread every 3-4 cm to prevent tangling during Ponatinib cost washing. Samples were immersed in a 1% solution of Triton X-100® for 15 – 20 minutes to remove external contamination, then followed by an initial 10 minute immersion in ultra-pure water (NANOpure Model D4751, Barnstead International, Dubuque, Iowa); then a 5 minute immersion,

with 3 additional sequential immersions. Cleaned samples were placed in 4 oz polyethylene bags and freeze-dried for 48 hours. Each scalp hair specimen was subsampled in 3 locations (segments 3-4 cm long) along the length of the hair. Initial subsamples were 3 cm, but in some cases this did not result in sufficient sample mass for duplicate [THg] measurements. Consequently, sub-sample length was increased to 4 cm. Initially, sub-samples (3 cm) were cut from the proximal, middle, and distal segments of the intact hair samples. This resulted in three distinct periods of growth from each sample with the consistent proximal segment always representing recent hair growth (3 to 4 months). The growth time between the 2 distinct segments was variable depending on the initial length of the sample. Distal samples were occasionally of inadequate mass for replicate [THg] measurement as hair length was uneven. Most hair samples were at least 15 cm long, so subsequent segmental analysis included three 4-cm long segments starting at the proximal end, with 1 cm between each segment; thereby, incorporating the most recent 14 cm of hair growth (Fig. 1).

Of the American species cultivated in Brazil, wines made from Bordô and Isabel grapes are by far the most investigated ( Nixdorf & Hermosín-Gutiérrez, 2010). With the purpose of contributing to the enrichment of the scientific literature on wines from American cultivars, and of making up for the lack of studies related to these grapes, the major aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the sensory attributes and the physicochemical properties of wines from two innovative winemaking processes in order to compare them with a traditional treatment. The wines produced

using the novel treatments were expected to present greater acceptance as compared to commercial wines. Secondly, it was expected that the chemical properties of these wines would be in accordance with click here the Brazilian legislation, and finally that the specific chemical properties would be related to their respective sensory attributes. The grapes were harvested in the city of Jales (20° 16′ 6″ South and 50° 32′ 56″ West), located in the northwest region of the State of São Paulo, Brazil. Six different red wines were produced and analyzed: Traditional Bordô wine (TB), Traditional Isabel wine (TI), Pre-dried Bordô wine (PDB), Pre-dried Isabel wine (PDI), Static

pomace Bordô wine (SPB) and Static pomace Isabel wine (SPI). The standard procedure for the production of the red wines consisted of de-stemming followed by manual crushing of the grapes. The must and pomace were placed in 10 L fermentation flasks, and a portion of the must removed for determination of the soluble solids in order to calculate Compound C ic50 the need for chaptalization. The Bordô and Isabel grapes presented 19.25 and 19.00°Brix, respectively, at the beginning of the winemaking processes. Sulfur dioxide was added to the must by the addition of 15 g of potassium metabisulfite per 100 kg

of grapes, and alcoholic fermentation was induced by inoculation with active Sulfite dehydrogenase dry Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the proportion of 20 g of yeast per 100 L of must. The must was macerated for 7 days, pumping twice a day, and subsequently dejuiced and chaptalized to 11°GL. After chaptalization, the must was properly racked three times at 10 day intervals, thus allowing for the spontaneous occurrence of the malolactic fermentation. The degree of malolactic fermentation was controlled by Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), using 20 mL of 50% acetic acid and 50 mL of a solution containing 1 g of bromophenol blue per L of butanol as the mobile phase (Ribéreau-Gayon, Paynaud, Sudrad, & Ribéreau-Gayon, 1982). Between the second and third rackings, the wines were moved to a refrigerated ambient for 10 days in order to stabilize the tartrate. The wines were then bottled in 750 mL glass bottles and stabilized for 90 days. The traditional wines followed the standard aforementioned process.

Finally, it is important to point out that while the Kleinhans and Mazur freezing point summation model defines the number of solute-specific coefficients to be used for each solute (three), the osmotic virial equation does not. In principle, it is possible to fit the osmotic virial equation to osmometric data with any number of osmotic virial coefficients, regardless of solute, and the fit should improve, even if only slightly, with

each added coefficient. www.selleckchem.com/products/LY294002.html However, the model fit converges quickly (recall that the osmotic virial coefficients represent increasing orders of interactions between solute molecules), with each added coefficient contributing progressively less to the accuracy of the fit. Indeed, previous studies [14] and [55] have shown that for most solutes,

the second osmotic virial coefficient is sufficient to accurately capture non-ideal solution behavior, although some particularly non-ideal solutes such as proteins require a third osmotic virial coefficient [55]. Epigenetics Compound Library cell line Furthermore, as noted by Prausnitz et al. [53], excessive coefficients (i.e. overfitting) may actually lead to a loss of accuracy when predicting the thermodynamic behavior of more complex, multi-solute solutions, due to the corresponding need for a greater number of mixing rules, each of which may have some uncertainty associated with it arising from assumptions made in its development. For these reasons, when curve-fitting the osmotic virial equation, the number of coefficients used (i.e. the order of the fit) should be limited to the minimum that gives an adequate fit. Pricket et al. [55] defined and applied a criterion based on the adjusted R2 statistic for determining the adequate order of fit for the osmotic virial equation. Cytidine deaminase However, this criterion did not account for the fact that the osmotic virial equation must pass through the origin (i.e. the osmolality of pure water is zero). Furthermore, there exist other criteria that are

appropriate for establishing the order of fit. In this work, two criteria were applied to determine the number of osmotic virial coefficients required for both the molality- and mole fraction-based osmotic virial equations: the adjusted R2 statistic, taking into account regression through the origin, and confidence intervals on the osmotic virial coefficients. In summary, the specific objectives of this work are threefold. First, to provide revised osmotic virial coefficients for the molality- and mole fraction-based multi-solute osmotic virial equations for solutes of interest to cryobiology, using the relationship between osmolality and osmole fraction defined through water chemical potential and an improved and extended set of criteria for selecting the order of fit. Second, to provide coefficients for the freezing point summation model for all the solutes considered in the first objective using the same data sets.

The presence Linsitinib cell line of five different Candida species (C. albicans, C. dubliniensis, C. glabrata, C. krusei and C. tropicalis) was simultaneously investigated using the DNA checkerboard hybridisation method. Additionally, we have correlated these findings to differences in surface roughness and total amount of formed biofilm. The null hypotheses were as follows: (I) there are no significant differences in terms of cell counts between target species for tested materials and (II) there is a positive correlation between count and surface roughness and the total amount of formed biofilm. Six healthy men aged between 21 and 27 years (mean age: 24 years) were enrolled in the study. The subjects

selected had no clinical signs of diseases in the oral mucosa and the gingival sulci were <3 mm deep without clinical signs of inflammation. Additional exclusion criteria were pregnancy, lactation, periodontal or antibiotic treatment in the earlier 3 months, current smokers or any systemic disease that could influence the periodontal status. The sample size was determined by means of sample size estimation for comparison of means considering estimated standard deviations (SDs). The study was approved by the local ethics committee (Ethical

Committee of the Faculty of Dentistry of Ribeirão Preto) and all the experiments were undertaken with the understanding and written consent of each subject according to the ethical principles (Process number: 2011.1.371.583). For this microbiological study, two different types of titanium and one type of this website ceramic specimen (10 mm in diameter and 2 mm in thickness) were used to evaluate the oral biofilm formation and composition after oral cavity exposure.

Three individual removable intraoral acrylic upper jaw splints for mounting test disc samples were fabricated for each subject, one for each type of evaluated substrate. Four disc specimens of the same material were fixed in the buccal region of each Interleukin-3 receptor splint, two positioned in the anterior region (incisive) and two in the posterior region (premolar). The entire tested surface of each material was totally exposed in the oral cavity after mounting. Before contamination test, all the splints containing mounted specimens were sterilised with hydrogen peroxide plasma for 60 min. Subjects were advised to use each splint for 24 h, removing it only for food consumption and tooth brushing. A period of 1 week was stated as ‘washout’ between each tested splint. After enrolment, participants randomly received the following three splint interventions, according to a ‘crossover’ design: (1) machined pure titanium (MPT; n = 24) specimens, (2) zirconia (Zc; n = 24) specimens and (3) cast and polished titanium (CPT; n = 24) specimens. MPT and Zc discs were obtained from Neodent® (Neodent, Curitiba, PR, Brazil).

In Fig. 3A, we found that the fraction Fv6 presented a strong and single band of 65 kDa; fractions Fv7, Fv8 and Fv9 showed similar bands of 65 and 75 kDa and fractions Fv10 Fv11 presented the same two bands with lower intensity, selleck chemical a band of 48 kDa and an intense band of 12 kDa. In Fig. 3B, the fractions of the skin mucus presented more and complex protein bands. The fraction Fm8 presented an intense band of 62 kDa that was also present on the fraction Fm9 with other compounds up to 74 kDa and under

18 kDa. The fraction Fm10 can be considered the most complex presenting bands of approximately 40 kDa and at least 7 bands under 25 kDa. Fractions Fm11, Fm12 and Fm13 showed similar profiles, an intense band of 46 kDa and 12 kDa and a weak band of 23 kDa. Together, these results show that sting venom and skin mucus have distinct constituents that distinguished them like structural proteins, chaperones, ion transport, carbohydrate metabolism, oxidoreductase, cell cycle and protein binding present in sting venom

and like tropomyosin 3 isoform 2 and energy metabolim proteins in skin mucus. But in a group of common 13 proteins we identified and isolated a WAP65 protein. Next we evaluated the inflammatory effects of peptide BKM120 price and protein fractions on microcirculation in mouse cremaster muscle by intravital microscopy. The topical application of 10 μL of the sting venom, skin mucus and

each fraction induced changes in the microcirculatory environment (i.e. rolling of leukocytes, changes in blood flow and vessel diameter). Low-density-lipoprotein receptor kinase Peptide fractions of sting venom (4 and 5) and of skin mucus (3, 4, 5, and 7) were able to increase the number of rolling leukocytes, but in contrast, fractions 1 to 3 of the sting venom and 1, 2 and 6 of the skin mucus were unable to elicit leukocyte mobilization (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5). The peptide sting venom fraction Fv4 induced the highest increase of rolling leukocytes compared to Fv5 and to sting venom or PBS. The number of rolling leukocytes induced by Fv5 after 10 min remained similar until 30 min after application. Until 20 min, all peptide skin mucus fractions induced elevated number of rolling leukocytes, but at 30 min after application of samples, the fraction Fm3 presented the higher capacity of increase the number of rolling leukocyte (Fig. 4). In Fig. 5A we observed that all protein sting venom fractions except for Fv6, exhibited the capacity to induce moderate increase of rolling leukocyte during 30 min of observation. Interestingly, Fv6 that showed as a unique band in SDP-PAGE induced the highest increase of rolling leukocyte until 20 min after topical application that diminished thereafter, remained similar to all protein sting venom fractions.

4J, K and SCH727965 Supplementary Fig. S4J, K). Interestingly, both CNTNAP2 and CMIP were expressed in the IO ( Fig. 4L, M and Supplementary Fig. S4L, M), although none of the dyslexia-related genes were found in this structure ( Fig. 4N–P and Supplementary Fig. S4N–P). The cerebellar nuclei consist of four major nuclei, the medial cerebellar nucleus (Med), lateral cerebellar nucleus

(Lat), interposed cerebellar nucleus, anterior part (IntA), and interposed cerebellar nucleus, posterior part (IntP). CNTNAP2, CMIP, ROBO1, KIAA0319, and DCDC2 were expressed in all cerebellar nuclei at P0 ( Fig. 4T–X) and adulthood ( Supplementary Fig. S4T–X). Conversely, FoxP1 and FoxP2 were only weakly expressed in the IntA and Lat at P0 ( Fig. 4R and S), with decreased find more expression in adulthood ( Supplementary Fig. S4R and

S). FoxP1 and CNTNAP2 were highly expressed from P0 to adulthood in the MD ( Fig. 2R, T and Supplementary Fig. S2R, T). Conversely, FoxP2 was highly expressed in this area at P0 ( Fig. 2S), but its expression decreased in adulthood ( Supplementary Fig. S2S). ROBO1, KIAA0319, and DCDC2 mRNA signals were observed at P0 in the MD ( Fig. 2V–X). However, the ROBO1 signal decreased throughout development ( Fig. 2V and Supplementary Fig. S2V), while the KIAA0319 signal did not change ( Fig. 2W and Supplementary Fig. S2W). DCDC2 expression level was weak from P0 to adulthood ( Fig. 2X and Supplementary Fig. S2X). In the ventral lateral thalamic nucleus (VL), FoxP2 was expressed at P0 ( Fig. 2S), but its expression decreased throughout development ( Supplementary Fig. S2S). FoxP1 was expressed from P0 to adulthood ( Fig. 2R and Supplementary Fig. S2R). CNTNAP2 mRNA signal was high from P0 to adulthood

( Fig. 2T and Supplementary Fig. S2T), while ROBO1 was highly expressed at P0 ( Fig. 2V), but its expression decreased in adulthood ( Supplementary Fig. S2V). KIAA0319 was expressed from P0 to adulthood ( Fig. 2W and Supplementary Fig. S2W). DCDC2 mRNA signal was observed at very low levels throughout development ( Fig. 2X and Supplementary Fig. S2X). In the CD and PU, FoxP2 was highly expressed at P0 ( Fig. 3C), but had drastically decreased expression levels at adulthood Benzatropine ( Supplementary Fig. S3C). In contrast, FoxP1 and CNTNAP2 were highly expressed at P0 ( Fig. 3B and D) and adulthood ( Supplementary Fig. S3B and D). CMIP, ROBO1, and KIAA0319 were highly expressed at P0 ( Fig. 3E–G), but had decreased expression levels during development ( Supplementary Fig. S3E–G). DCDC2 was weakly expressed at P0 ( Fig. 3H), and not expressed in either the CD or PU in adulthood ( Supplementary Fig. S3H). In the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNC), CNTNAP2 and CMIP were highly expressed from P0 to adulthood ( Fig. 3L, M and Supplementary Fig. S3L, M). FoxP2 and FoxP1 were also expressed in the SNC from P0 to adulthood, but with relatively low expression levels ( Fig. 3J, K and Supplementary Fig. S3J, K). ROBO1 was expressed at P0 ( Fig.

p.) and intratumoral (i.t.) injections, daily for 14 consecutive days, starting on day 9 after tumor inoculation (days 9 to 22 as shown in Figure 1, Group 3). Animals were sacrificed on day 23 to determine tumor volume and overall survival (n = 6/subgroup). The radii of the developing tumors were measured every third day from day 7 to day 31, using vernier calipers and the tumor volume was estimated using the formula:

PD-0332991 in vitro V = 4/3πr12r2, where r1 and r2 represent the radii from two different sites [25], [32] and [33]. Data are expressed as the mean ± standard deviation (SD) of three replicates and analyzed using GraphPad PRISM software 5.0 (GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA). One-way analysis of variance was used for the repeated measurements, and the differences were considered to be statistically significant if P < .05. SPSS 17.0 statistical software (IBM Inc., NY) was used for Kaplan-Meier survival analysis. The IC50 values were calculated using the Easy Plot software (Spiral Software, MD). The polysaccharide PST001 isolated from the seed kernels of Ti was found to have neutral pH with total sugar content of 98%, as determined by the phenol-sulfuric acid method.

After isolation, the polysaccharide PD0332991 mw was purified by gel filtration chromatography, lyophilized and stored at 4°C. Ionic gelation was utilized to produce the PST-Dox nanoparticles with an average size of 10 nm; nanoconjugates were lyophilized and stored with minimal exposure to light [26]. PST-Dox nanoparticles were evaluated for cytotoxic activity against two murine ascites cancer cell lines, DLA and EAC by MTT assay. The cytotoxic potential was found to be highly significant in both the cell lines Rucaparib datasheet examined (Figure 2A and B). DLA and EAC cells were growth-arrested with IC50 values of 0.58 ± 0.4 μg/ml and 0.42 ± 0.3 μg/ml, respectively after 24 hours of incubation with PST-Dox

nanoparticles. Dox alone generated IC50 values of 6.37 ± 1.2 μg/ml (DLA) at 48 h, and 80 ± 1.4 μg/ml (EAC) at 24 hours. The native polysaccharide PST001 produced IC50 values of 43 ± 1.3 μg/ml (DLA) and 597 ± μg/ml (EAC) only after prolonged hours (48 h) of incubation ( Figure 2, A and B). Earlier, we showed the potency of PST-Dox against other cancer cell lines such as MCF-7, HCT116 and K562 cells [26]. With more concrete evidence, it is now imperative to say that the new Dox formulation with PST001, PST-Dox also exhibits wide spectrum of anticancer activity with even better effects than PST001 or Dox as single agents alone. This could be partly due to the cytotoxic effects elicited by the already known cytotoxic agents, PST001 and Dox. In addition to the synergistic effect, the increased surface-to-volume ratio of the nanoparticles permitted PST-Dox with optimal physical, chemical, and biological activities compared with its parent macromolecules.

This line was also involved in development of a number of widely grown varieties (Table 3) [29]. Most lines in each heterotic subgroup were resistant to common rust, but a few were resistant to CLS. The frequency of lines resistant

to GLS and southern rust was also low in most subgroups except for PB containing approximately 50% of resistant lines. Northern corn leaf blight and southern corn leaf blight are the most important diseases in the spring and summer maize producing regions, respectively. These diseases have been well controlled by growing Selleck GSKJ4 resistant cultivars [43]. However, more than 10 E. turcicum races have been detected in the northeastern and northern China spring maize regions, some of which can overcome the four known resistance genes [44], [45], [46], [47], [48] and [49]. Although half of the lines tested in the present study were resistant or moderately resistant to NCLB, identification of resistant lines with different Ht genes for resistance to NCLB and/or gene combinations using different races is desirable. This measure will facilitate the sustainable use of resistance to

NCLB in the field. Field investigation has demonstrated that strains with high pathogenicity occur in race O of B. maydis, producing larger lesions and severe leaf necrosis [50]. Thus, deployment of inbred lines resistant to epidemic and high pathogenic strains of B. maydis is an Selleckchem PCI 32765 important task in developing inbred lines against SCLB. The increasing importance of CLS and GLS in certain regions has required resistant parental lines. The results from the present study reveal a shortage of lines highly resistant to these diseases in the pool of inbred lines currently used in maize hybrid production. This situation renders commercial maize hybrids vulnerable to epidemics of CLS and GLS. There is an urgent need to deploy lines with high resistance to these diseases. Unfortunately, none of the lines was resistant to CLS, except for a few lines with moderate resistance. Only nine lines were resistant to GLS. Given that resistance to CLS and GLS was controlled by multigenes in a quantitative Dichloromethane dehalogenase trait locus model

[34], [51], [52] and [53], it is not easy to find high level of resistance to these diseases. A broad range of germplasm lines from various sources should be screened to identify lines that are highly resistant to CLS and GLS. Common rust was well controlled, with most lines displaying sufficient resistance. However, highly resistant lines are also needed in southwestern provinces of China, owing to severe epidemics of the disease. Compared to common rust, the proportion of lines resistant to southern rust was small, and additional work is needed to identify highly resistant germplasm lines. These are of particular importance in summer maize breeding programs. The authors thank Dr. D. Jeffers of CIMMYT for providing the protocols of disease resistant tests. Financial support provided by the Ministry of Agriculture of China (No.

ECM consists of mainly collageneous materials and aggrecans [1], which are RO4929097 maintained under the control of a normal turnover process between new ECM synthesis by residing chondrocytes and breakdown by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and aggrecanases. In certain pathological conditions, such as osteoarthritis, however, some MMPs are highly induced and degrade ECM. Among the MMPs, MMP-13 is the most important collagenase to degrade and destabilize ECM in human articular cartilages [2], [3] and [4]. In this regard, it is thought that MMP-13 inhibitor(s) and/or downregulator(s) may play a beneficial therapeutic role of chondroprotection. Korean

Red Ginseng (steamed white ginseng, Panax ginseng Meyer) is famous for possessing various biological effects, including enhancing vital energy, enhancing immune capacity, and inhibition of cancer cell growth. Its major AZD5363 constituents are various ginsenosides that have been reported to exhibit numerous pharmacological activities, including vitality

enhancement, immune modulation, and anticancer activity [5], [6] and [7]. However, few investigations or few clinical studies of ginsenosides on cartilage degradation disorders have been reported. Among the ginsenosides from Korean Red Ginseng, some are not present in white ginseng products [8] and [9]. Examples are ginsenoside Rg3, Rg5, Rk1, and F4 that are only detected in red ginseng extract. Previously, one ginsenoside, Rg3, was found to inhibit MMP-13 expression in human osteoarthritic chondrocytes [10]. We have recently found that certain ginsenosides including Rc, Rd, Rf, F4, Rg1, and Rg3 inhibit MMP-13 induction from human chondrocytes, and some also block glycosaminoglycan (GAG) release from interleukin (IL)-1α-treated cartilage culture to some degree [11]. These previous findings strongly suggest that the Korean Red Ginseng products and/or some ginsenoside-enriched preparations

may possess a significant inhibitory activity of MMP-13 expression and thereby block cartilage degradation. Thus, several ginseng preparations have Cell press been designed and prepared in the present study. They were examined for MMP-13 downregulatory effect and cartilage protection to find a potential for a new chondroprotective agent. This is the first report of the preparations from Korean Red Ginseng and ginseng leaves to show MMP-13 downregulating properties. Human IL-1α, IL-1β, dexamethasone, diclofenac, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), and anti-MMP-13 antibody were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich (St Louis, MO, USA). Dulbeccos’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM) and other cell culture reagents including fetal bovine serum (FBS) were products of Gibco BRL (Grand Island, NY, USA). The protein assay kit was purchased from Bio-Rad (Hercules, CA, USA).

For nearly two millennia, it was a symptom and symbol of China’s never-ending problems with “frontier barbarians” who worked continuously to harvest some of the nation’s wealth for themselves (Barfield, 1989). It survives very visibly to the present, albeit now in greatly dilapidated condition except for a few limited restorations. The new Qin emperor also created for his personal afterlife a huge mounded tomb almost half a square km in extent, still unexcavated but, according to recorded legend, containing

a detailed replica of the royal palace surrounded by rivers of mercury. Well-digging in 1974 led to the discovery, about two km away from this location, of a fully equipped “spirit army” buried in two large pits that JNJ 26481585 included perhaps 3000 life-sized Z-VAD-FMK nmr “terracotta warriors” and associated pottery models of horses, chariots, and weaponry. Excavations quickly captured world attention and the work continues, now sheltered and displayed beneath a vast metal hangar that could house a considerable fleet of the world’s largest jet airplanes (Fig. 2). The Zheng Guor Canal system, according to historical records created in 246 BC by the pre-imperial Qin State, was laid out over a course of some 200 km and linked two local rivers. It hugely expanded the agricultural output of the Qin region and helped afford its lord the economic wherewithal to gain

greater control Casein kinase 1 over his rivals. Beyond the constructions subsequently ordered by Emperor Qin Shihuangdi there were also infrastructural projects sponsored by other wealthy “houses” of the region that we still see attested archeologically – dams, canals, vast irrigated agricultural fields, and roads – that are not as well preserved as the displays of royal wealth we see in the Qin emperor’s funereal Terracotta Army. Nevertheless,

these modifications are evident on the landscape and referred to in written records of the time. A third-century historical source quoted by Elvin (1993) vividly portrays the busy cultural landscape of the Qin and following Han periods: “The households of the powerful are [compounds] where one finds hundreds of ridge beams linked together. Their fertile fields fill the countryside. Their slaves throng in thousands, and their [military] retainers can be counted in tens of thousands. Their boats, carts, and their merchants spread out in every direction…. The valleys between the hills cannot contain their horses, cattle, sheep, and swine. The great array of huge mounded earth tombs inside the boundaries of modern Xi’an, created by the Han emperors who followed Qin Shihuangdi, further attests the Imperial capacity of the time for enormously labor-intensive construction projects that created large areas of anthropogenic landscape in the Wei River Valley. Each Han tomb was an artificial mountain that took armies of men and animals years to build.