One interviewee suggested the development of an in-built evaluation of the research process, its outputs, and the way in which results were communicated incorporated into the research design. The evaluation could include feedback from potential users of the research. In

addition, the evaluation could include lessons from other experiences and practices. This was perceived to have the potential to provide useful ‘good practice’ lessons for future policy- or society-relevant research processes. Finally, consideration should be given to the merits of cross-reviewing: for example in addition to academics MK-4827 concentration reviewing academic papers (peer-review) and policy-makers reviewing policies, the merits of academics and other stakeholders reviewing policy, or policy-makers and other Cell Cycle inhibitor stakeholders reviewing academic outputs should be explored. Within academia, for example, the reviewing process (for quality assurance

of science) is done by an author’s peers in the scientific community. Whilst this should not be ignored, there may be some benefits of having scientific work reviewed by peers LY2874455 research buy within other communities (e.g. other scientific disciplines or Schools, policy, NGOs, etc.) (Funtowicz and Ravetz 1993). These actors could evaluate the scientific outputs critically to make these more policy-relevant if possible. This type of reviewing would also Lonafarnib nmr address some of the interviewees’ comments on the potential lack of feedback from funders on contracted research reports at the end of projects. However we note that as cross-reviewing is time consuming for all involved, planning and funding cross-reviewing initiatives would need to be recognised and resourced accordingly. Finally, the whole process of framing the questions and research process jointly is likely to lead to a better understanding of the types of outputs useful for policy, namely outputs that are

presented in the right format, using understandable language, in a timely way and addressing the institutional level (e.g. global, European, national, regional, organizational, team, individual) relevant for the given knowledge users. The framing of science and policy can also be instrumental in strategic and long-term planning. Lack of coordinated planning between science and policy can lead to ‘closed’ thinking and a focus on immediate priorities for policy, without regard to identifying and acting on emerging and/or long-term issues. The lack of a strategic, long-term overview from policy and, in turn, science, may risk wasting resources and also risks duplicating previous work commissioned or carried out, particularly for small or applied projects. Moreover, institutional organisation of science may induce researchers to focus on improving knowledge on already well-studied topics rather than exploring new themes (Grandjean 2013).