CYP2D6 polymorphisms are reported to influence the emergence of TCA and MAOI side effects, but not the majority of the newer antidepressants (for details see ref 72). Thus, the clinical utility of pharmacokinetic genes predicting side effects remains limited. To date, the most promising observations of an association between genes and antidepressant side effects have come from the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism. Personalized medicine and neuroïmagïng A major barrier to progress in the study of complex diseases, such as schizophrenia and

depression, is the heterogeneity arising from etiological and phenotypic diversity. A significant amount of selleckchem neuroimaging research has been conducted to Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical identify biomarkers or endophenotypes which may reduce the heterogeneity. Proximal markers are presumed to be less genetically complex than the clinical phenotype. The identification of intermediary phenomena and specific gene-endophenotype linkages may increase the individual variability explained by candidate genes. The

validity of biomarkers and endophenotypes is contingent on their sensitivity and specificity for the disease in question.37 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical In the next sections we present the most promising neuroimaging markers of treatment response in depression and schizophrenia. Neuroimaging markers of antidepressant treatment outcome Anterior cingulate cortex The most commonly reported finding in neuroimaging studies of depression is that increased rostral Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical anterior cingulate cortex (rACC) activity predicts later response to depression treatment, including antidepressants,73-75 CBT,76 and sleep deprivation.77 Structural MRI measurements of the ACC have also demonstrated an association with treatment response.78

Hie ACC is implicated in numerous Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical brain functions, likely due to its neuroanatomical position as a bridge between frontal cortical and subcortical structures.37 The rACC, primarily Brodmann area 25, is consistently reported to be hyperactive in depressed treatment responders.79 According to Mayberg et al’s theory of depression, Idoxuridine cortical-subcortical regulation shifts from the dorsolateral to the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC), which contributes to rACC hyperactivity.75 It is this region that is a target of deep brain stimulation (DBS) studies of treatment-resistant depression.80 In further support of this theory, two independent groups of researchers have identified increased pretreatment activity in rACC theta activity in responders using low-resolution electromagnetic tomography.81,87 Functional neuroimaging studies during active task conditions can facilitate distinguishing responders from nonresponders by targeting the neurocircuitry involved in depression.37 The aim is to reduce unexplained background cerebral activity (“noise”) present during the resting state, thereby increasing the signal-to-noise ratio.