, 1983 and Axen et al., 1984) and during increased ventilatory requirements triggered by whole-body exercise ( Gravier et al., 2013). Some have speculated that the stimuli that arouse the behavioral responses to loading are nonchemical in nature ( Axen et al., 1983). In turn, the inter-individual variability in the pattern of breathing likely reflects inter-individual differences in the strength of the Hering-Breuer reflex ( Gravier et al., 2013). Please, see electronic http://www.selleckchem.com/products/3-deazaneplanocin-a-dznep.html supplementary material. Important questions remain. The relative contribution of afferent fibers from the respiratory muscles and the lungs in determining task failure has to be elucidated. The impact

of C-fibers in modulating the response to acute loading must be ascertained and their exact role clarified. Studying acute inspiratory loading in patients who have undergone lung transplantation may shed light on the relative contribution of bronchopulmonary

C-fibers in the modulation of central inhibition, alveolar hypoventilation, and task failure during acute loading. Given the considerable redundancy in the respiratory selleck kinase inhibitor control system, submaximal EAdi at task failure in lung-transplant recipients would not necessarily mean that vagally mediated mechanisms are non-operative; such a result could arise from activation of alternative pathways that compensate for the absence of vagal afferents. Finally, the observation that acute loading is accompanied by improvements in diaphragmatic neuromechanical coupling provides a rationale for studies of acute loading in patients in whom abnormal pulmonary mechanics may preclude such responses, such as patients with COPD in whom expiratory flow limitation precludes a decrease in EELV during expiratory muscle contraction. Our results demonstrate that hypercapnia during acute loading in awake subjects primarily results from reflex inhibition of central neural output to the diaphragm. That is, the response to acute loading is primarily under the control of cortical motor areas rather than the bulbopontine respiratory centers. Our

results also demonstrate that hypercapnia occurs despite improved diaphragmatic neuromechanical coupling, and that task failure is primarily caused by the interplay of several central mechanisms whose common end result is the development of intolerable Dichloromethane dehalogenase discomfort to breathe. F.L. contributed to the design of the experiments, their execution, to the analysis of data, and to the preparation of the manuscript. H.S. contributed to the execution of the experiments, to data analysis, and to the preparation of the manuscript. D.M. developed the mathematical algorithms used for data analysis, and contributed to literature search and data analysis. C.S. developed the acquisition system to record and analyze the electrical activity of the crural diaphragm. AJ contributed to the design of the experiments, to its execution, and manuscript preparation.