Swimmers represented the low-impact group, as ground reaction forces are absent in the majority of swim training. Each participant completed four questionnaires under the supervision of the study coordinator. A health history questionnaire

addressed each participant’s medical history, current health conditions, previous and current medication use, fracture history, and for women, any previous or current instances of amenorrhea. The validated International Physical Activity Questionnaire [34] was used to determine general physical activity in the form of metabolic equivalents (METs). A training history questionnaire was administered to the athletes to gain information on previous (age that the participant started to compete and training volume over the year prior) and current training regimes. A validated food frequency questionnaire [35] and [36] was

used to determine dietary calcium intake Staurosporine (mg/day). Standing height was measured to the nearest millimeter using a wall-mounted Roxadustat mw stadiometer (Seca model 222; Seca, Hamburg, Germany). Body mass was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg with an electronic scale (Seca model 876, Seca, Hamburg, Germany). Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA, Discovery A, Hologic Inc., USA) was used to obtain measurements of bone mineral free lean mass (kg) from a whole-body scan. Three trained technicians acquired and analyzed all DXA scans according to standard Hologic protocols, and also performed daily quality control procedures. High-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT, XtremeCT, Scanco Medical, Brüttisellen, Switzerland) was used to obtain measurements of bone mineral density (BMD, g/cm3), and bone macro- and micro-architecture of the dominant distal radius and dominant distal tibia for each participant. We scanned the non-dominant

Protein tyrosine phosphatase radius in five participants (one female control, one male control, two female soccer players, and one male soccer player) who reported a previous fracture to their dominant radius. A detailed description of scan acquisition is provided elsewhere [37]. Briefly, the HR-pQCT scans provided high-resolution images of a 9.02 mm section of the distal radius and distal tibia (Fig. 1). This system used a nominal isotropic voxel size of 82 μm, with an equal in-plane and between-plane voxel size. The first of 110 slices was acquired 9.5 mm proximal to the endplate of the radius and 22.5 mm proximal to the endplate of the tibia. A single trained operator acquired all scans and performed daily quality control procedures. All HR-pQCT scans were analyzed according to the manufacturer’s recommended protocol [38] to produce standard morphological outcomes including total BMD (Tt.BMD, mg HA/cm3), trabecular BMD (Tb.BMD, mg HA/cm3), trabecular number (Tb.N, mm− 1), trabecular thickness (Tb.Th, mm), and trabecular separation (Tb.Sp, mm) [39].