One method to assess noradrenergic function in PTSD has been to measure plasma NF, levels or levels of NE metabolites in 24-hour urine collections. Studies have found increased urinary concentrations of NE among hospitalized PTSD patients compared with hospitalized patients

with other mental disorders.9 Similar findings have been reported in sexually abused children compared with healthy controls.10 Other investigators have noted decreases in the density of platelet cell α2-adrenergic receptors in combat veterans with PTSD and in traumatized children.11,12 Reduction of these NE-binding receptors may indicate an adaptive downregulation in response to chronically elevated plasma NE levels. Since the noradrenergic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical axil also modulates peripheral autonomic

responses, investigators have also assessed noradrenergic function in Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical PTSD by comparing autonomic sesponses in PTSD subjects and controls. Automnomic measures in these studies have includes heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and galvanic skin responses. While early studyies13,14 noted baseline autonomic differences between combat veterans with PTSD and non-PTSD controls, later studies15-17 did not control Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for the effects of anticipatory anxiety and study demand characteristics.18,19 Studies that have compared autonomic responses in PTSD and non-PTSD subjects to stressful but nontraumatic stimuli such as having to perform arithmetic caclulations20,21 or watch unpleasant Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Navitoclax Bcl-w films16,22 have not identified autonomic differences between PTSD subjects and controls. Thus, there is little evidence to suggest that PTSD

involves changes in resting autonomic function or in autonomic responsivity to nontraumatic stimuli. In contrast to these negative findings, there is compelling evidence to indicate that individuals with PTSD exhibit an increased autonomic responsivity to trauma-related stimuli. Compared with traumaexposed controls, PTSD subjects exhibit greater autonomic arousal to trauma-related stimuli such as audiotapes of combat sounds,13,14,23 videotapes of war zone scenes,16,24 and trauma-related smells.25 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Pitman et al22 noted increased autonomic arousal in PTSD subjects using a script-driven imagery technique in which trauma survivors listened to their own trauma narrative while viewing trauma-related inhibitor order us slides. These findings prompted a multisite Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study to evaluate Dacomitinib the diagnostic utility of psychophysiological assessments in Vietnam combat veterans with PTSD.21 This study included three groups: veterans with current PTSD (n=778), veterans with lifetime but not current PTSD (n=181), and veterans who never had PTSD (n=369). Using physiological variables alone, researchers correctly classified 67 % of the current PTSD group and a similar percentage of the non-PTSD group. Collectively, these studies suggest that increased autonomic reactivity to traumatic stimuli is an important feature of manyindividuals with PTSD.